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rn  ^  i^p  r-v  v^  ^ 

J  I..,/  ,  3  j-^  r   i  1    L-^  * 


MEADOWS 


AND 


PASTURES 


By  JOSEPH  E.  WING 

Staff  Correspondent  of  The  Breeder's  Gazette 


Chicago: 
The  Breeder's  Gazette 


f/f/aa 


.'••••       •     -     •"".  Copyrighted,  1911, 

r'«  £1  {'*•••  '       *    •«'•    t    r^Y  SANDERS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

c  *  "  '  All  rights  reserved. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 
"WHERE   THE   AUTHOR   LIVES    AND    THIS    BOOK   WAS    WRITTEN" 2 

TIMOTHY    (Phleum  pratense) 24 

EFFECT  OF  TIME  OF  CUTTING  ON  TIMOTHY 27 

REDTOP    (Agrostis   \ulgaris) 43 

ORCHARD   GUASS    (Dactylis   glomerata) 47 

GROWTH  MADE  BY  ORCHARD  GRASS 49 

BROME  GRASS    (Brornus   inermis) 51 

MEADOW  FESCUE   (Festuca  elatior) 54 

SHEEP   FESCUE    (Festuca  ovina) « ;    57 

ITALIAN  RYEGRASS   (Lolium  perenne) 59 

TALL  OATGRASS    (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum) 61 

JOHNSON  GRASS  (Sorghum  halapense) 63 

KENTUCKY   BLUEGRASS    (Poa   pratensis) 77 

A  VIRGINIA  MOUNTAIN   PASTURE 81 

GRAZING  IN  THE  VIRGINIA  MOUNTAINS 83 

EXPORT  STEERS  ON  VIRGINIA  BLUEGRASS 93 

TETHERING  CATTLE  ON  GRASS  IN  FRANCE 95 

CANADA  BLUEGRASS    (Poa  compressa) - 101 

BERMUDA  GRASS   (Cynadon  dactylon) 113 

TYPICAL  BERMUDA  GRASS  PLANT 119 

CARPET  GRASS    (Paspalum  compressum) 123 

TEXAS  BLUEGRASS   (Poa  arachnifera) 125 

QUACK  GRASS    ( Agropyrum  repens) 127 

NIMBLEWILL    (Muhlenbergia   diffusa) .  . 131 

SOYBEAN  ROOTS  WITH  NODULES 136 

WHITE  CLOVER  IN  TENNESSEE : 151 

COMMON  RED  CLOVER    (Trifolium  pratense) 153 

DODDER  ON  RED  CLOVER „ 163 

SWEET  CLOVER  (Melilotus  alba) 179 

RED  CLOVER  ROOTS  WITH  TUBERCLES  ; 179 

HAIRY  VETCH   ( Vicia  villosa) 184 

TYPICAL  HAIRY  VETCH  PLANT 186 

COWPEA  PLANT 186 

CANADA  FIELD  PEA  PLANT 193 

COWPEA  PLANT  WITH  LONG  ROOTS 195 

RACK  FOR  CURING  COWPEA  HAY 197 

COWPEA  HAY  COCKED  OVER  RACK 198 

COWPEA  HAY  RACK  READY  TO  MOVE 199 

COWPEAS  IN  A  SOUTHERN  FIELD 201 

VELVET  BEAN  PLANT  AND  PARTS 203 

SOYBEAN   PLANT 205 

TYPICAL  SOYBEAN   PLANT 207 

SOYBEANS   IN   A  TENNESSEE   FIELD 209 

DODDER  ON  AN  ALFALFA  PLANT 213 

MATURE  DODDER  ON  ALFALFA 213 

BLUEJOINT  GRASS    (Deyenxia  Canadensis) 249 

FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS    (Poa  serotina) 251 

BORDER  LEICESTER  SHEEP  ON  SCOTCH  PASTURE 255 

GRASS  AND  SHEEP  IN  ENGLAND 259 

HORSES  IN  A  FRENCH  PASTURE 269 

BLUEGRASS  CUT  FROM  UNMANURED  LAND 276 

BLUEGRASS  FROM  MANURED  LAND 277 

LAMBS  IN  ENGLISH  HURDLES 295 

MAP  OF  ENGLISH  PASTURE  WORK 312 

SKETCH  SHOWING  GAINS  ON  GRASS 319 

CRIMSON  CLOVER   IN   GUERNSEY 337 

PARA  GRASS  IN  FLORIDA 361 

JAPANESE  CANE  IN  FLORIDA 362 

VELVET  BEANS  IN  SOUTHERN  FIELD , ,    ,  . 363 

NATAL  GRASS   FIELD , 365 


465735 


Next  in  importance  to  the  divine  profusion  of  water,  light  and 
air,  those  three  physical  facts  which  render  existence  possible,  may 
be  reckoned  the  universal  beneficence  of  grass.  Lying  in  the  sun- 
shine among  the  buttercups  and  dandelions  of  May,  scarcely  higher 
in  intelligence  than  those  minute  tenants  of  that  mimic  wilder- 
ness, our  earliest  recollections  are  of  grass;  and  when  the  fitful 
fever  is  ended,  and  the  foolish  wrangle  of  the  market  and  the 
forum  is  closed,  grass  heals  over  the  scar  which  our  descent  into 
the  bosom  of  the  earth  has  made,  and  the  carpet  of  the  infant  be- 
comes the  blanket  of  the  dead. 

'Grass  is  the  forgiveness  of  Nature^her  constant  benediction. 
Fields  trampled  with  battle,  saturated  with  blood,  torn  with  the 
ruts  of  cannon,  grow  green  again  with  grass,  and  carnage  is  for- 
gotten. Streets  abandoned  by  traffic  become  grass-grown,  like 
rural  lanes,  and  are  obliterated.  Forests  decay,  harvests  perish, 
flowers  vanish,  but  grass  is  immortal.  Beleaguered  by  the  sullen 
hosts  of  winter  it  withdraws  into  the  impregnable  fortress  of  its 
subterranean  vitality  and  emerges  upon  the  solicitation  of  spring. 
Sown  by  the  winds,  by  wandering  birds,  propagated  by  the  subtle 
horticulture  of  the  elements  which  are  its  ministers  and  servants, 
it  softens  the  rude  outlines  of  the  world.  It  invades  the  solitude 
of  deserts,  climbs  the  inaccessible  slopes  and  pinnacles  of  moun- 
tains, and  modifies  the  history,  character  and  destiny  of  nations. 
Unobtrusive  and  patient,  it  has  immortal  vigor  and  aggression. 
Banished  from  the  thoroughfares  and  fields,  it  bides  its  time  to 
return,  and  when  vigilance  is  relaxed  or  the  dynasty  has  perished 
it  silently  resumes  the  throne  from  which  it  has  been  expelled 
but  which  it  never  abdicates.  It  bears  no  blazonry  of  bloom  to 
charm  the  senses  with  fragrance  or  splendor,  but  its  homely  hue 
is  more  enchanting  than  the  lily  or  the  rose.  It  yields  no  fruit 
in  earth  or  air,  yet  should  its  harvest  fail  for  a  single  year  famine 
would  depopulate  the  world. — -John  James  Ingalls. 


Consider  what  we  owe  to  the  meadow  grass,  to  the  covering  of 
the  dark  ground  by  that  glorious  enamel,  by  the  companies  of 
those  soft,  countless,  and  peaceful  spears  of  the  field.  Follow  but 
a  little  time  the  thought  of  all  that  we  ought  to  recognize  in  those 
words.  All  ^spring  and  summer  is  in  them — the  walks  by  silent 
scented  paths,  the  rest  in  noonday  heat,  the  joy  of  the  herds  and 
flocks,  the  power  of  all  shepherd  life  and  meditation;  the  life  of 
the  sunlight  upon  the  world,  falling  in  emerald  streaks  and  soft 
blue  shadows,  when  else  it  would  have  struck  on  the  dark  mould 
or  scorching  dust;  pastures  beside  the  pacing  brooks,  soft  banks 
and  knolls  of  lowly  hills,  thymy  slopes  of  dawn  overlooked  by  the 
blue  line  of  lifted  sea;  crisp  lawns  all  dim  with  early  dew,  or 
smooth  in  evening  warmth  of  barred  sunshine,  dented  by  happy  feet, 
softening  in  their  fall  the  sound  of  loving  voices. — John  Ruskin. 


PREFACE. 

The  genesis  of  this  book  was  a  ride  across  England 
one  day  in  May,  1907.  The  earth  was  green  and  beauti- 
ful, the  pastures  lush,  the  meadows  giving  brave  promise. 
Many  cows  grazed  the  pastures,  fleecy  sheep  climbed  the 
hills  of  Derbyshire,  great  mares  watched  their  lubberly 
colts  race  across  the  sward  and  all  was  one  harmonious 
scene  of  peace,  restfulness  and  security.  There  was  some- 
thing especially  alluring  in  an  agriculture  based  essentially 
on  permanent  things  like  meadows  and  pastures  that  do 
not  let  fields  erode,  that  maintain  and  build  fertility,  that 
make  possible  the  higher  types  of  agriculture  based  on 
keeping  good  animals,  on  making  milk  for  babes,  wool  for 
soft  garments  or  fine  young  horses  for  the  use  of  man. 

All  along  the  way  I  observed  there  was  much  doing 
in  the  meadows.  Great  hopper-shaped  machines  on  two 
wheels  were  going  to  and  fro  over  the  grass  distributing 
something,  I  knew  not  what.  Evidently  the  grasses  were 
being  fed;  evidently  the  wonderful  carpet  of  green  did 
not  "just  happen" — it  was  part  of  a  definite  plan.  It  was 
fed,  with  what  ? 

I  learned  a  great  deal  during  that  summer  in  Europe 
of  the  habits  of  men  in  feeding  grasses  in  that  land,  in 
making  and  maintaining  meadows  and  pastures.  All  my 
life  I  had  loved  grasses  and  clovers,  the  meadowland  and 
the  pasture,  as  had  my  fathers  and  grandfathers  before 
me,  and  this  work  appealed  to  me.  I  resolved  to  help  on 
the  same  sort  of  work  in  America.  My  book  "Alfalfa  in 

(7) 


8  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

America"  was  the  first  step,  and  was  a  labor  of  love. 
With  that  book  out  of  the  way,  I  took  up  this  one  and 
have  labored  on  it  intermittently  ever  since.  I  am  con- 
scious of  its  imperfections  and  limitations,  and  can  only 
plead  that  in  America  the  work  of  learning  what  can  be 
done  with  meadows  and  pastures  is  so  new  that  I  can  not 
find  data. 

Let  me  here  give  thanks  to  the  men  who  have  helped 
me.  On  my  table  has  lain  constantly  BeaFs  "Grasses  of 
North  America."  "Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United 
States,"  Thos.  F.  Hunt's  "The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops 
of  America,"  and  every  known  bulletin  of  the  various 
states  of  America  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  I 
have  also  drawn  considerably  from  E.  B.  Voorhees' 
"Forage  Crops."  In  truth,  it  has  not  infrequently  come 
over  me  with  wonder,  "Why,  here  is  better  material  than 
you  can  present ;  Why  not  tell  your  readers  to  go  directly 
to  Beal,  Hunt,  Spillman  or  Voorhees  rather  than  to  read 
a  book  of  your  own?" 

I  do,  indeed,  earnestly  advise  each  reader  to  buy  all  of 
these  books.  They  are  all  valuable,  each  one  in  its  own 
way.  Nevertheless,  I  have  been  able  here  to  add,  I  hope, 
a  little  to  the  sum  of  knowledge  of  grasses  and  clovers, 
their  care  and  the  feeding  of  meadow  and  pasture  land, 
so  that  maybe  this  book  will  find  use  on  American  farms. 


INTRODUCTION. 

I  sit  to  write  this  book  just  as  spring  comes  timidly 
sweeping  over  the  land.  Winter  has  been  long  and  cold, 
the  naked  cornfields  are  sodden,  gullied  with  winter  rains ; 
there  is  no  hint  of  life  thereon.  Wherever  the  plow  held 
sway  last  summer  there  is  rueful  countenance  today.  I 
look  out  across  wide  stretches  of  meadow  and  pasture 
land.  There  already  the  ground  is  covered  with  green- 
ness, the  tiny  grass  blades  are  pushing  up,  the  clovers  are 
coming,  too,  the  soil  is  alive,  the  field  is  a  living  thing, 
robing  itself  with  green.  On  the  cornlands  there  has  been 
waste  during  winter.  The  rains  have  washed;  the  fer- 
tility has  leached  away.  Not  so  with  the  fields  of  grass 
and  clover ;  they  have  more  than  held  their  own ;  they  are 
richer,  not  poorer,  for  the  lapse  of  time. 

Pastures  feed  mankind;  they  are  the  bedrock  of  civ- 
ilization. From  my  window  I  see  cows  tranquilly  graz- 
ing the  short,  tender  grass  under  the  lee  of  the  hill — the 
grass  that  the  first  sun  has  warmed  and  made  sweet. 
Those  cows  are  the  foster-mothers  of  the  human  race. 
They  are  alchemists,  transforming  the  green  carpet  of  na- 
ture into  milk  yellow  with  cream,  food  for  mankind, 
making  sturdy  limbs  of  childhood  and  brain,  muscle  and 
endurance  in  man.  Children  love  the  wide  pastures,  the 
sunny,  grassy  slopes.  The  largeness,  freedom  and  sweet- 
ness of  the  grassy  outdoors  build  the  child.  The  cow 
comes  homeward  with  swinging  udder  filled  to  nourish, 

(9) 


10  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

to  build,  to  replenish  the  mother,  the  strong  sons,  the  little 
toddling  children.     Truly  their  flesh  is  grass. 

In  another  pasture  I  see  white-fleeced  sheep;  I  hear 
the  tinkle  of  their  bells.  Eagerly  they  nip  the  tender 
grass  and  the  budding  clovers.  Their  lambs  race  on  the 
hill-slopes;  a  grave-faced  man  with  stooping  shoulders 
walks  among  them,  giving  each  ewe  and  each  lamb  a 
searching  glance.  Under  one  arm  he  carries  a  dangling 
lamb,  one  of  new-born  twins,  wandered  from  their 
mother.  Presently  he  unites  the  little  family  and  with 
satisfaction  sees  the  mother  ewe  own  her  lamb,  and  with 
true  maternal  instinct  proceed  to  fill  it  with  milk.  Its  little 
tail  wags  a  joyous  story;  the  shepherd  smiles  and  goes  on 
his  way.  The  pastures  clothe  mankind. 

The  races  of  men  who  wear  wool  dominate  the  world. 
The  keeping  of  sheep  has  made  characters  so  strong,  so 
brave,  manly  and  true  that  they  have  changed  the  history 
of  the  world.  Moses  keeping  his  father-in-law's  flock  on 
the  desert  ranges  of  Midian  dreamed  there  dreams, 
gained  strength,  faith  and  persistent  courage  that  enabled 
him  to  lead  the  children  of  Israel  from  bondage  to  the 
Promised  Land.  Young  David,  watching  sheep  on  the  hills 
of  Judea,  gained  strength,  courage  and  farsighted  wisdom 
that  led  him  to  be  the  deliverer  of  his  people,  their  great- 
est king  and  singer.  There  is  something  that  comes  from 
living  amid  pastures  that  makes  men  sane,  patient,  endur- 
ing, imbued  with  deep  love  for  their  land  and  their 
country. 

Carrying  farther  the  thought  of  the  influence  of  pas- 
tures on, civilization,  I  see  grazing  on  the  hillside  a  mare 
and  a  foal.  While  the  sheep  clothes  and  helps  feed  man- 


INTRODUCTION  11 

kind  the  horse  gives  him  his  strength.  By  means  of  the 
horse  he  subdues  forests,  emerges  into  new  lands  which 
he  makes  into  states,  plows,  plants  and  reaps  fields  of 
maize  or  of  wheat,  drag  harvests  to  the  railways  that 
carry  them,  to  the  hungry  peoples  of  the  world.  The 
horse  creates  highways  and  maintains  them,  creates  com- 
merce, creates  and  carries  food,  fuel,  clothing — all  the 
things  that  go  to  make  up  the  needs  of  man.  While  the 
sheep  comforts  mankind  and  the  cow  nourishes,  the  horse 
makes  man  what  he  is — strong,  swift,  bold,  daring.  And 
all  this  comes  from  the  pasture. 

In  the  past  we  have  not  esteemed  pastures  as  we  should. 
We  have  with  our  pastures  an  inheritance  of  neglect.  In 
the  beginning  when  fields  were  carved  with  infinite  toil 
from  forests,  the  maize  was  fenced,  the  wheat  enclosed, 
the  animals  were  turned  outside.  That  land  which  had 
received  no  labor  was  made  pasture.  Since  then  we  have 
followed  a  like  practice ;  all  our  labor,  all  the  manure,  all 
the  lime  and  drainage,  go  to  the  plow  land,  the  pasture 
receiving  nothing.  The  richest,  most  level  and  best- 
drained  lands  are  plowed ;  what  is  too  rough  or  too  poor 
or  too  wet  is  made  into  pasture.  In  the  northern  and 
middle  states  grasses  come  of  their  own  accord,  so  on 
pastures  none  are  sown.  The  owner  knows  little  or  noth- 
ing as  to  the  profit  derived  from  this  pasture.  Very  likely 
he  will  tell  you  that  it  has  no  profit  at  all,  only  conven- 
ience. Year  by  year  the  grasses  grow  of  their  own  ac- 
cord; they  require  no  sowing,  no  expense  save  fencing. 
No  credit  is  given  for  gallons  of  milk  produced  from 
this  grass,  for  pounds  of  butter,  for  growth  of  young  pigs, 
colts,  lambs  and  calves.  The  work  horses  run  on  the 


12  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

pasture  at  night,  but  die  owner  forgets  to  credit  the  pas- 
ture for  helping  in  their  upkeep  and  conducing  greatly  to 
their  health.  When  he  has  his  plow  lands  well  under  hand, 
he  turns  longing  eyes  toward  his  pasture,  and  probably 
sets  the  fence  in  so  that  he  can  plow  a  slice  of  it  and  add 
it  to  the  field.  It  is  doubtful  whether  he  has  any  acre  of 
plow  land  that  is  making  him  more  clear  profit  than  the 
same  width  of  pasture  land,  yet  he  knows  it  not.  It  has 
never  occurred  to  him  to  drain  his  pasture  land,  to  feed 
it.  to  lime  it  perhaps,  and  make  it  more  profitable. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  bring  this  matter  of 
permanent  grass  and  clovers,  the  meadows  and  pastures, 
before  farmers,  helping  them  to  see  the  profit  that  may 
be  had  from  them,  helping  them  make  two  blades  of 
grass  grow  where  only  one  grows  now.  It  is  high  time. 
The  year  of  1910  witnessed  almost  a  famine  in  many 
cities,  with  foods  so  high  in  price  that  men,  women  and 
children  have  made  great  outcry,  and  with  good  reason. 
The  way  to  feed  the  people  is  not  to  plow  more  land, 
but  better  to  till  what  land  is  plowed.  To  feed  the 
people  we  must  first  broaden  our  permanent  pastures,  and 
make  them  more  productive.  An  acre  of  bluegrass  has 
produced  500  pounds  of  beef  in  Virginia.  An  Illinois 
cornfield  with  a  4O-bushel  'crop  (above  the  average  for 
that  state)  \vould  make  fewer  pounds  of  beef  or  pork. 
The  Virginia  pasture  is  not  eroding  and  is  losing  its 
fertility  at  least  much  more  slowly  than  the  land  planted 
to  corn,  given  cultivation  and  exposed  for  seven  months 
to  leaching  and  washing  of  rains.  I  know  grazing  farms 
in  Virginia  that  have  yielded  $15  per  acre  in  beef  and 
lambs  and  colt  flesh.  Laying  down  lands  to  pasture  or 


INTRODUCTION  13 

meadow  is  not  going  backward  in  civilization  or  develop- 
ment. The  growth  of  our  cities  makes  call  for  more 
milk,  cream,  lambs,  pigs,  calves  and  colts.  We  can  lay 
down  a  fourth  of  our  corn  acres  and  with  feeding  and 
good  culture  grow  more  on  the  remaining  three  acres 
than  we  have  been  accustomed  to  grow  on  the  four.  By 
the  aid  of  the  land  laid  down  to  pasture  we  can  become 
in  a  measure  independent  of  distant  sources  of  supply 
for  animals  to  feed.  The  pasture  land  will  make  our 
lads  better  linked  to  the  soil.  A  boy  is  -not  easily 
fastened  to  a  plowed  field ;  his  affections  are  not  deeply 
set  on  a  corncrib  or  a  grain  bin.  The  pasture,  with  its 
inhabitants,  the  frolicking  lambs,  the  bright-eyed  calves, 
the  sturdy  colts  and  great,  gentle  mares — these  touch 
his  heart  and  make  him  glad  to  succeed  his  father  on 
the  old  home  farm. 

Withal  there  is  such  deep  ignorance  of  the  art  of 
making,  holding  and  feeding  meadows  and  pastures  in 
America  that  I  have  thought  it  well  worth  while  under- 
taking these  investigations  and  seeking  to  help  what  I 
could.  Before  I  began  this  task  I  addressed  a  letter 
to  each  experiment  station  director  in  the  United  States 
asking  for  help.  It  was  amazing  to  see  how  many  re- 
plied in  effect,  "We  regret  that  we  have  made  no  in- 
vestigations along  the  line  of  work  about  which  you  in- 
quire, and  have  no  record  of  ever  having  fertilized  any 
pasture  or  permanent  grassland."  Beside  these  letters, 
I  did  receive  many  most  helpful  ones  not  only  from 
home,  but  some  even  more  inspiring  from  abroad.  In 
the  Old  World  one  finds  pastures  most  prized,  best  fed, 
best  cared  for;  there  already  men  have  begun  to  learn 


14  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  art  and  science  of  making  two  blades  of  grass  grow 
where  but  one  grew  before.  I  wish  this  book  to  be  as 
short,  simple  and  concise  as  will  go  with  accuracy.  I 
promise  to  leave  out  of  it  everything  that  my  conscience 
will  permit  me  to  leave  out. 

There  are  3,500  species  of  grasses  in  the  world  and 
6,500  species  of  legumes.  All  of  these  are  interesting. 
Life  is  so  short  that  we  shall  here  consider  only  those 
that  have  proved  their  merit.  The  list  is  a  surprisingly 
short  one  both  of  clovers  and  grasses. 


THE  GRASSES  (GRAMINEOE). 

Probably  the  grasses  are  the  most  useful  plants  in  the 
world.  It  may  be  that  more  than  half  the  individual  plants 
in  the  world  are  grasses.  It  is  a  great  family  of  more 
than  3,500  species,  embracing  species  that  are  so  tiny 
that  they  hardly  reach  an  inch  in  height,  and  the  giant 
bamboos  of  the  tropics  that  sometimes  grow  to  be  100' 
or  more.  Corn  is  a  giant  grass ;  and  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  rice  and  sugar  cane,  all  are  grasses.  Then  there 
are  millets,  sorghum,  Kaffir -corn,  broom  corn — all 
grasses.  Some  few  plants  we  call  grasses  are  not  true 
grasses ;  the  sedges  are  of  a  lower  order  of  plants.  Broom 
sedge  is  not  a  grass. 

One  can  know  a  grass  usually  by  its  round  often  hol- 
low stem,  its  long,  narrow  leaf  with  usually  parallel 
veins  and  its  manner  of  growth,  not  from  buds  at 
the  terminus  of  the- part,  but  by  leaf  and  stem  being 
pushed  up  from  beneath.  All  grass  stems  are  jointed ; 
the  nodes  are  bulging  and  usually  solid.  The  leaves  clasp 
the  stems  in  enveloping  sheaths. 

Most  grasses,  especially  the  perennials,  have  creeping 
underground  stems  or  root-stocks.  These  make  new  stems 
to  spring  up  around  the  parent  stem  and  thus  perennial 
grasses  usually  thicken  themselves  rapidly.  Some  an- 
nual grasses  do  this  and  some  do  not ;  nearly  all  grasses 
"stool"  or  increase  by  sending  up  many  stems  from  one 
root.  Wheat  may  send  up  40  or  more  stems  from  one 
seed  if  the  soil  is  rich;  corn  will  sucker,  sending  up  sev- 

(15) 


16  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

eral  stalks,  as  will  the  sorghums,  millets  and  all  those 
classes  of  large  grasses.  Some  species  send  out  long 
trailing  stems  or  runners  lying  flat  on  the  earth  and  tak- 
ing root  at  each  joint.  Some,  like  the  quack  grass  (Agro- 
pyrum  repens),  fill  the  soil  with  a  mass  of  roots  that  will 
each  send  up  new  stems  and  if  dragged  to  a  fresh  spot 
will  there  make  a  new  center  of  growth. 

The  number  of  species  of  grasses  is  enormous,  yet  we 
have  adopted  into  our  system  of  agriculture  but  a  few 
sorts.  In  part  that  is  due  to  the  ease  or  difficulty  of 
seeding  grasses.  Timothy  grass,  for  example,  is  so  easily 
sown  and  the  seed  so  easily  gathered,  that  it  is  soonest 
set  of  any,  and  has  become  the  standard  hay  grass  of 
northern  climes.  In  some  regions  Kentucky  bluegrass  is 
the  almost  universal  pasture  grass  because  it  comes  in  of 
itself;  in  other  regions  with  different  soil  (poor  and 
lacking  in  lime)  redtop  has  possession.  Naturally  the 
farmer  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance,  yet  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  he  has  adopted  into  his  agriculture  all 
the  best  grasses  that  nature  has  provided. 

On  the  mountains  and  hills  of  Utah,  for  instance,  once 
grew  wild  bunch  grasses  that  would  keep  cattle  fat  all 
winter,  standing  dry,  yellow  and  cured  on  their  stems. 
We  have  not  yet  learned  to  use  that  bunch  grass  in  cul- 
tivation; maybe  we  shall  never  learn  it.  In  Ohio  the 
wild  grass  of  the  open  plain,  blue  joint  (Calamagrostis 
Canadensis),  made  far  more  hay  to  the  acre  than  tim- 
othy does,  and  I  think  the  hay  was  fully  as  good.  Some 
day  we  shall  do  more  towards  using  now  neglected  spe- 
cies ;  their  seeding  habit  is  what  is  now  in  the  way. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  grasses  listed  as  useful  are 


GRASSES  FEES  17 

not  in  use,  and  there  must  be  good  reason  for  this.  Some 
of  the  little  used  but  recommended  grasses  are  not  easily 
established.  Sheep  fescue,  for  example,  I  have  always 
found  most  difficult  to  establish  in  Ohio,  though  the  few 
plants  that  I  have  succeeded  in  getting  have  grown  well. 
So  of  a  number  of  the  other  fescues ;  while  they  may  be 
useful  grasses  in  their  place,  yet  the  part  they  play  in 
American  agriculture  is  negligible,  with  the  exception  of 
Meadow  fescue  (Festuca  pratensis).  While  one  may 
doubt  the  wisdom  of  the  individual  farmer,  here  and  there, 
yet  there  is  no  denying  that  collectively,  as  a  mass,  they 
have  followed  the  lines  of  kast  resistance  and,  as  a  rule, 
found  the  plants  that  will  give  them  best  results.  There 
are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  For  example,  in  most  of  the 
states  north  of  the  Ohio  River  brome  grass  (Bromus 
inermis)  seems  to  me  to  be  the  best  of  all  pasture  grass- 
es, yet  because  it  does  not  come  of  itself  it  is  as  yet  al- 
most never  seen.  So,  too,  the  reed  canary  grass  seems 
unusually  prolific  and  productive,  but 'because  of  difficulty 
in  seeding  it  is  seldom  used. 

HOW  GRASSES  FEED. 

Grasses  have  wonderful  root  development.  Their  fine, 
fibrous  roots  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil  and  occupy 
each  tiny  crevice.  I  have  seen  barley  roots  penetrate  8' 
into  loose  loamy  soil  in  California  before  the  tops  had 
reached  12"  in  height.  These  tiny  rootlets  have  great 
power  to  absorb;  some  of  them  have  power  even  to  dis- 
.  solve.  Grasses  use  a  good  deal  of  silica  to  stiffen  their 
stems.  This  silica  is  sometimes  dissolved  from  grains  of 
quartz  sand.  Some  silica-loving  plants  will  even  etch 


18  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

glass  that  comes  in  contact  with  their  roots,  dissolving  it 
to  obtain  their  building  material.  Grasses  have  great 
power  of  absorbing  whatever  fertilizing  materials  there 
may  be  in  the  soil.  Their  roots  cluster  thick  wherever 
there  is  food,  finding  any  decaying  material  in  the  soil 
and  nesting  there  in  multitudes.  There  seems  indeed  a 
subtle  intelligence  in  nature;  it  is  almost  as  though  the 
grass  roots  were  alive,  for  they  seem  to  seek  out  and  find 
the  desirable  feeding  places  in  the  soil.  The  fact  prob- 
ably is  that  they  penetrate  nearly  every  crevice  in  the 
soil,  but  unless  they  find  nourishment  they  do  not  thicken 
and  increase.  The  way  grass  roots,  find  their  way  through 
the  soil  is  interesting.  The  tip  of  a  growing  root  has 
a  constant  motion  to  each  side,  so  that  as  it  pushes  for- 
ward it  feels  its  way,  entering  every  open  channel. 

This  explanation  explains  only  in  part,  for  the  fact  is 
that  the  roots  of  a  plant  persist  in  keeping  a  more  or 
less  direct  course  away  from  the  stem,  spreading  in 
every  direction  much  as  the  branches  do  above  ground. 
Were  there  not  some  subtle  intelligence  in  nature  the 
roots  would  double  back  on  themselves  and  tangle  inex- 
tricably. They  very  fully  occupy  the  soil  and  to  far 
greater  depth  than  is  often  supposed,  especially  if  the 
subsoil  happens  to  be  permeable  and  fertile.  This  ex- 
plains why  underdrainage  helps  grasslands  and  why 
grasses  so  thoroughly  use  up  soil  moisture  during  periods 
of  drouth. 

Plants  absorb  the  moisture  and  available  plant  food  of 
the  soil,  having  also  the  power  to  dissolve  locked-up,  min- 
eral plant  food.  Therq  are  four  elements  that  the  plants 
mainly  need  in  soils,  (the  others  usually  being  in  plenti- 


GRASSES  AND  CLOVERS  TOGETHER  .  19 

ful  supply  and  so  of  lesser  importance  in  considering  the 
fertility  of  a  soil).  These  elements  are  phosphorus,  po- 
tassium, nitrogen  and  calcium.  It  is  notable  that  soils 
seem  to  select  their  plants,  or  vice  versa.  One  finds  in  a 
certain  soil  one  type  of  grasses,  in 'another  soil  a  very  dif- 
ferent type.  Where  lime  abounds,  with  phosphorus,  po- 
tassium and  nitrogen,  one  sees  the  Kentucky  bluegrass 
occupying  all  the  land,  no  other  species  being  able  to  main- 
tain a  foothold.  In-  a  soil  poorer  in  lime  and  phosphorus 
Canada  bluegrass  will  be  found,  and  where  lime  is  mark- 
edly deficient  with  also  a  scarcity  of  other  mineral  ele- 
ments (they  usually  go  together)  redtop  predominates. 

Clovers  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air  through  the  ac- 
tion of  bacteria  that  inhabit  their  roots.  Grasses  have 
no  such  affinity  for  bacteria,  and  no  means  of  gathering 
nitrogen.  Grasses  feed  largely  on  nitrogen  and  soon  take 
it  out  of  the  soil  when  kept  closely  cropped  or  mown  off 
for  hay. 

GRASSES  AND  CLOVERS  SHOULD  BE  GROWN  TOGETHER. 

Because  clovers  have  power  to  provide  nitrogen  they 
and  the  grasses  should  always  be  grown  together.  In- 
deed, this  is  nature's  way.  There  is  commonly  seen  in 
nature  an  intermixture  of  plants  and  none  more  perfect 
or  adapted  to  good  ends  than  the  mixture  of  grasses  with 
clovers.  One  often  sees  an  old  pasture  become  thin  and 
the  grasses  somewhat  feeble,  then  white  clover  appears 
and  overruns  it.  The  clover  finds  mineral  elements  suffi- 
cient and  the  grasses  weak  and  off  their  guard.  After  the 
clover  has  grown  well  there  for  a  time  the  soil  is  filled 
with  nitrogen  once  more  and  then  the  grasses  spring  up 
with  renewed  vigor  and  the  clover  is  subdued  and  nearly 


20  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

suppressed.  When  the  grasses  have  again  exhausted  part 
of  the  available  nitrogen  and  become  less  vigorous  the 
clover  reappears,  and  so  the  endless  round  of  nature  goes 
on.  Timothy  yields  much  more  hay  when  red  clover  is 
sown  with  it  than  when  sown  alone;  Bermuda  grass 
thrives  best  when  white  or  bur  clover  is  grown  with  it, 
for  any  clover  will  secure  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

AN  OLD  SOD  IS  RICH. 

"To  break  a  pasture  will  make  a  man,  to  make  a  pas- 
ture will  break  a  man,"  is  an  old  English  saying.  It  is 
well  known  that  sod  ground  is  rich,  especially  rich  in 
nitrogen.  Grasses  will  not  yield  their  maximum  till  they 
have  accumulated  a  "sod."  What  is  a  sod?  It  is  a  tough 
fibrous  mass  of  roots,  stems  and  decaying  leaves;  half  is 
alive  and  half  is  dead.  It  is  made  up  of  all  the  plants 
that  grow  on  the  pasture — grasses,  clovers  and  weeds. 
It  may  be  as  tough  almost  as  a  carpet,  and  can  be  cut  and 
rolled  like  a  green  rug.  Sods  contain  much  nitrogen. 
How  do  they  get  it  ?  It  was  not  till  1901  that  we  knew  of 
a  group  of  beneficent  bacteria  that  live  on  decaying  veg- 
etable matter  in  the  soil,  the  "azotobacter."  This  group 
of  bacteria  revels  in  old  pasture  sods ;  the  bacteria  like  a 
soil  rich  in  decaying  vegetation,  with  enough  lime,  with 
air  in  plenty  and  moisture  enough.  It  is  through  these 
azotobacter  that  old  sods,  even  when  clovers  have  been 
absent,  are  yet  rich  in  nitrogen. 

PRODUCTIVITY  OF  PASTURES. 

Old  sods  often  have  double  the  carrying  power  of  new- 
ly-seeded grass  land.  The  reasons  for  this  may  be  va- 
rious, yet  one  chief  reason  is  in  the  presence  in  the  old 


SOD-BOUND;  HOW  GRASSES  GROW  21 

pasture  of  a  sod,  a  dense  mass  of  decaying  stems,  leaves 
and  rootlets,  with  their  accompanying  bacterial  flora  add- 
ing nitrogen  to  the  soil  to  promote  life  in  the  living  stems. 
The  lesson  is  plain;  do  not  overstock  young  grassland; 
let  it  grow  rank  enough  so  that  part  of  the  grass  may 
fall  to  the  ground  and  decay  to  start  the  development  of 
these  life-giving  bacteria.  The  work  may  also  be  greatly 
expedited  by  scattering  manure  over  the  newly-made  pas- 
ture land. 

DO    PASTURES    BECOME    "SOD-BOUND"  ? 

A  common  belief  among  farmers  is  that  pastures  fail 
to  produce  as  well  as  they  should  sometimes  after  stand- 
ing for  a  term  of  years  because  they  have  become  "sod- 
bound;"  that  is,  too  many  plants  are  established  to  a 
square  foot.  Probably  this  is  seldom,  if  ever,  true.  The 
pasture  declines  not  because  of  over  population  but  be- 
cause of  the  using  up  of  its  available  plant  food.  To  test 
the  matter,  take  the  worst  bit  of  dense  pasture  sod  you 
can  find  and  feed  it,  either  with  manure  or  with  nitrate 
of  soda  (at  the  rate  of  about  y±  pound  to  the  square  rod) 
and  see  if  it  does  not  at  once  immensely  improve  and 
grow  perhaps  four  times  as  much  forage  as  will  grow  on 
the  adjoining  land  unfertilized.  To  plow  that  sod,  kill- 
ing the  grasses  and  letting  their  stems  and  roots  decay  in 
the  soil,  would  also  fill  the  land  with  nitrogen,  but  it 
would  take  years  to  restore  as  good  a  set  of  grass  as  was 
already  there,  needing  only  to  be  fed. 

HOW  GRASSES  GROW. 

A  curious  and  distinguishing  trait  of  grasses  is  their 
manner  of  growth.  Most  plants  grow  from  the  unfolding 


22  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

of  terminal  buds,  and  the  continual  formation  of  new 
buds  at  the  tips  or  sides  of  branches.  Grasses  grow  from 
the  lower  ends  of  their  leaves  or  blades;  thus,  you  may 
cut  off  the  grass  blades  as  often  as  you  like  and  they  will 
again  be  pushed  up  from  below.  This  curious  fact  is  of 
the  greatest  value,  as  it  makes  possible  the  pasturing  of 
grasses  with  no  injury  to  them.  Clovers  fed  down  close 
yield  only  a  fraction  of  their  normal  growth,  since  they 
can  not  after  being  bitten  off  grow  again  till  new  buds 
are  formed,  while  grasses  bitten  off  will,  if  there  is  mois- 
ture and  warmth  and  fertility  under  them,  at  once  push 
up  the  bitten  blades  high  enough  to  afford  a  second  bite, 
and  this  they  will  do  indefinitely. 

HOW  GRASSES  THICKEN. 

Grasses  tend  to  increase  by  means  of  their  spreading 
underground  rootstocks.  These  rootstocks  are  not  true 
roots,  but  are  in  reality  underground  stems.  Some  grass- 
es are  very  wonderful  in  their  development  of  under- 
ground stems,  providing  very  stout,  stiff,  powerful  root- 
stocks  armed  with  hard,  sharp  points  able  to  penetrate 
almost  anything.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  a  root  of  quack 
grass  penetrate  entirely  through  a  potato.  A  large  num- 
ber of  grasses  have  these  creeping  underground  stems, 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  brome  grass,  redtop,  and  Bermuda 
grass  being  good  examples.  There  are  other  grasses  that 
tend  always  to  remain  in  clumps,  as  the  fescue  grasses, 
timothy,  orchard  grass,  and  western  bunch  grass.  Even 
these  stooling  grasses  increase,  but  the  new  offshoots  are 
always  sent  up  close  to  the  parent  stem. 

This  tendency  of  grasses  to  thicken  themselves  makes 


GRASSES  FOR  MEADOWS  23 

it  easy  to  get  a  good  thick  sod.  One  need  not  sow  more 
seed  after  one  gets  a  sprinkling  of  grass ;  one  needs  only 
in  some  way  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  either  by 
manuring  or  fertilizing  or  by  sowing  legumes,  and  in  a 
'short  time  nature  will  plant  the  grass  plot  so  thickly  that 
no  room  will  be  found  for  more  plants. 

SOME  GOOD  GRASSES  FOR  MEADOW. 

Timothy. — More  has  been  said  for  and  against  timothy 
grass  than  almost  any  other  grass  or  forage  crop.  It  'ias 
been  lauded  as  the  best  feed  for  horses:  It  has  been  de- 
nounced as  the  poorest  forage  coming  from  the  meadow. 
It  has  been  declared  unfit  for  sheep  or  cows  because  of 
its  deficiency  in  protein.  It  has  been  declared  to  be  no 
better  than  straw  in  a  ration  for  cattle  or  horses.  Livery 
stable  keepers  refuse  to  buy  any  other  hay  for  their  hard- 
driven  horses.  Many  men  declare  that  horses  will  work 
better  on  timothy  hay  than  on  alfalfa  or  almost  any  other 
hay.  The  fact  remains,  after  all  has  been  said,  that  tim- 
othy is,  and  will  long  remain,  the  standard  hay  crop  of 
America.  There  are  several  very  good  reasons  for  this 
fact.  It  is  very  easily  established;  the  seed  is  cheap  and 
easily  sown.  It  comes  soon  and  yields  its  best  crop,  very 
likely,  the  year  after  it  is  established.  It  is  an  easy  grass 
to  make  into  hay.  It  has  fair  palatability  and  horses  once 
accustomed  to  it  relish  it.  It  is  not  very  nourishing  when 
cut  as  ripe  as  is  common  practice,  and  thus  there  is  no  bad 
result  from  feeding  horses  plenty  of  it;  in  truth,  they 
will  not  ordinarily  eat  too  much  of  it,  as  it  is  not  suffi- 
ciently palatable?  to  tempt  them.  Contrasted  with  alfalfa, 
it  has  far  less  of  nourishment  in  it,  but  alfalfa  is  often 


24 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


Timothy    (Phleum   pratense). 


WHEN    TO    CUT    TIMOTHY  25 

fed  in  too  large  amounts  to  horses  and  the  excess  of  nu- 
triment fed  them  must  be  eliminated  and  that  fact  makes 
them  sweat  more  and  tire  sooner  than  had  they  not  been 
overfed.  The  plain  truth  is  that  timothy  hay  is  safest 
for  horses  ordinarily  because  it  is  not  much  more  than  a 
filler,  the  animals  getting  nourishment  from  grain. 

When  to  Cut  Timothy  Hay. — Timothy  hay  is  not  a 
suitable  forage  for  dairy  cows,  fattening  animals,  or 
sheep ;  it  is  too  woody  and  unnutritious  for  that  unless  it 
is  cut  early.  Early-cut  timothy  hay  is  tender  and  digest- 
ible. As  it  ripens  it  becomes  more  and  more  woody.  Prof. 
H.  J.  Waters,  when  Director  of  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station,  made  some  very  valuable  investigations  as  to  the 
effect  of  harvesting  timothy  hay  at  various  stages  of  de- 
velopment. Briefly,  it  was  mown  when  in  full  head  but 
not  in  bloom,  when  in  full  bloom,  when  the  seeds  were 
formed,  when  the  seeds  were  in  the  dough  and  when  the 
seeds  were  fully  ripe  and  some  of  them  shed.  It  was  ex- 
pected that  a  large  increase  in  yield  of  weight  of  hay 
would  be  found  as  ripening  progressed.  This  did  not 
prove  to  be  true.  The  tests  were  carried  through  several 
years  and  varied  in  results  considerably,  yet  usually  nei- 
ther the  first  nor  last  cutting  made  the  greatest  weight 
of  hay;  sometimes  it  fell  to  that  cut  when  in  full  bloom, 
sometimes  to  that  with  seed  just  formed  and  in  one  in- 
stance to  the  cutting  made  before  bloom.  Usually  there 
was  considerable  shrinkage  in  the  hay  cut  before  bloom. 
The  evidence,  judged  by  weight  alone,  seems  to  point 
conclusively  to  cutting  just  when  the  seeds  are  formed. 
Cutting  at  that  time  also  produces  hay  of  the  highest 
market  quality. 


26  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Digestibility  and  Time  of  Cutting. — There  is  another 
factor  than  yield  to  consider,  especially  if  one  is  to  feed, 
the  hay  to  one's  own  animals ;  that  is,  palatability  and  di- 
gestibility. Early-cut  timothy  is  tender,  well-flavored, 
easily  masticated  and  digested.  Animals  like  early-cut 
hay  and  eat  it  readily.  Late-cut  hay  is  tough,  woody, 
hard  to  chew  and  hard  to  digest.  If  one  succeeds  in  get- 
ting a  great  weight  of  hay  cut  with  seed  fully  ripe  one 
has  little  if  any  more  than  so  much  straw.  A  great  deal 
of  the  protein  that  should  be  in  the  hay  has  gone  into  the 
seed,  and  animals  can  not  digest  timothy  seed.  The 
plants  have  developed  a  great  deal  of  woody  fiber  and  that 
has  locked  up  much  nourishment  that  otherwise  would 
have  been  available. 

Green  grasses  are  full  of  sap ;  that  sap  is  the  best  part 
of  the  grass.  Everyone  knows  the  good  that  follows  put- 
ting animals  out  to  graze  tender,  juicy  grass.  Grasses 
cut  with  the  sap  in  them,  dried  and  made  into  hay,  will 
maintain  animals  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as  though  they 
were  grazing  it  green.  My  father  knew  that  well,  and 
by  cutting  his  meadows  early,  he  would  .  usually  be 
through  haying  by  the  time  his  neighbors  had  begun.  He 
often  told  me  that  early-cut  grass  would  feed  young  cat- 
tle as  well  as  ripe  grass  and  grain.  His  practice  proved 
his  theory.  He  always  wintered  young  steers  on  hay 
alone  and  they  grew  well  and  came  through  in  good  or- 
der, afterward  grazing  exceedingly  well.  It  was  not  un- 
usual for  him  to  cut  timothy  before  it  flowered;  oftener 
he  would  cut  it  when  in  full  bloom.  He  would  always 
have  red  clover  mixed  through  his  timothy  meadows  so 
long  as  it  would  endure. 


WHEN    TO   CUT   TIMOTHY 


27 


28  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

The  Missouri  Experiments. — To  test  this  thing,  Prof. 
Waters  at  Columbia  fed  steers  on  timothy  hay  alone  and 
gave  them  their  choice  of  the  several  cuttings.  These 
were  put  in  the  rack  so  that  the  steers  would  eat  as  they 
liked.  In  every  instance,  they  began  to  eat  the  first-cut 
grass,  taking  next  that  cut  second  and  refusing  to  eat  any 
of  the  ripe  cut  hay  till  the  earlier-cut  was  all  consumed. 
The  instincts  of  animals  are  very  safe  guides  when  mat- 
ters of  nutrition  are  concerned.  The  investigations  of 
Prof.  Waters  are  so  interesting  and  the  results  secured 
so  valuable  that  I  advise  the  reader  to  see  THE  BREEDER'S 
GAZETTE  of  June  9.  1909  and  June  16.  1909.  I  quote 
his  conclusions :  "So  far  all  the  results  have  been  in  fa- 
vor of  the  earlier  cuttings.  The  yields  were  larger,  the 
hay  was  more  completely  digested,  and  was  more  pala- 
table to  the  stock.  In  the  matter  of  convenience  of  har- 
vesting the  balance  tips  heavily  the  other  way.  The 
greener  the  grain  is  cut  the  longer  time  it  takes  to  cure, 
the  more  easily  it  is  damaged  by  showers  and  heavy  dews, 
and  the  more  readily  it  will  sunburn."  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, if  one  is  farming  to  feed  one's  animals  one  can  well 
afford  to  face  those  obstacles  in  the  hope  of  getting  the 
larger  nutrition  from  the  land  and  of  having  the  animals 
in  better  thrift  and  flesh. 

Time  of  Cutting  and  the  Health  of  the  Plants. — There 
is  another  side  to  this  question — that  of  early  or  late  har- 
vesting. Fortunately,  Waters  has  also  made  this  clear. 
It  is  the  effect  of  the  cutting  at  different  times  on  the  fu- 
ture yield.  It  has  long  been  noted  that  in  the  drier  parts 
of  the  timothy  belt,  the  yield  of  subsequent  crops  was 
injured  by  early  cutting.  This  is  not  visually  true  in  the 


WHERE  TIMOTHY  PAYS  29 

eastern  and  moister  parts  of  the  country.  Prof.  Waters 
points  out  that*  timothy  increases  by  multiplication  of 
bulbs,  somewhat  as  some  sorts  of  onions  increase.  These 
bulbs  store  food  for  the  future  growth  of  the  plants.  As 
the  timothy  ripens  nutriment  is  being  stored  in  the  new 
bulbs  as  well  as  in  the  seeds.  If  it  is  then  cut  too  early  the 
bulbs  are  weakened  and  the  stand  lessened.  These 
bulbs  also  increase  and  store  nourishment  in  the  fall  while 
the  aftermath  is  growing;  therefore  it  is  a  serious  injury 
to  a  timothy  meadow  to  pasture  it  in  the  fall.  Timothy 
meadows  should  never  be  pastured  unless  the  aftermath 
is  unusually  heavy  due  to  a  moist  fall.  It  is  not  easy  to 
thicken  a  timothy  stand  by  sowing  fresh  seed.  Nature's 
way  is  to  thicken  by  increase  of  bulbs.  Good  feeding 
will  do  much  to  keep  the  stand  dense.  Except  in  the 
moister  and  cooler  parts  of  the  United  States,  one  can 
not  expect  to  make  a  permanency  of  a  timothy  meadow; 
it  must  occasionally  be  plowed  and  cultivated  for  a  year 
or  more  and  resown.  Other  grasses  creep  in  to  oust  the 
timothy,  the  chief  offenders  being  Kentucky  and  Canada 
bluegrasses  and  redtop.  These  grasses  being  much  more 
firmly  rooted  than  timothy,  can  not  be  got  out  without 
plowing  the  meadow. 

Where  Timothy  is  Profitable. — Timothy  may  be  grown 
as  far  south  as  central  Mississippi  if  sown  on  rich  alluvial 
soil ;  it  does  not  endure  for  a  long  time  except  in  cooler, 
moister  regions.  Its  natural  home  is  along  the  northern 
edge  of  the  cornbelt,  northward  far  into  Canada  through- 
out New  England,  the  high  parks  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains with  irrigation,  and  the  rainy  side  of  the  Pacific 

*  The  Breeder's  Gazette.  June  30,  1909. 


30  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Coast  states.  In  the  central  states  timothy  thrives  for  a 
few  years,  but  tends  steadily  towards  replacement  with 
other  grasses.  Timothy  responds  to  rich,  moist  soil,  well 
filled  with  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

What  to  Sow. — Perhaps  no  other  grass  has  been  found 
that  affiliates  well  with  timothy,  and  any  admixture  will 
lower  its  grade  in  the  market.  On  poor  soils  deficient  in 
carbonate  of  lime,  redtop  thrives  better  than  timothy  and 
is  sometimes  sown  with  it,  though  redtop  is  an  inferior 
grass.  Clovers  grow  well  with  timothy  and  are  an  aid 
to  it.  Common  red  clover  suits  it  best  under  ordinary 
conditions,  though  on  moist  land  inclined  to  need  lime 
alsike  clover  is  more  vigorous,  and  on  dry,  rich  soils  al- 
falfa and  timothy  thrive  well  together.  Unfortunately 
the  market  objects  to  a  large  proportion  of  clover  in  tim- 
othy hay,  though  if  it  is  nicely  cured  the  hay  is  really 
very  much  enriched  by  the  mixture.  Red  clover  disap- 
pears after  the  second  year  quite  completely  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  yield  of  timothy  is  materially  increased 
by  having  had  the  clover  as  an  associate.  Timothy  rap- 
idly uses  up  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil,  and  this  the  red 
clover  accumulates. 

Alfalfa  with  Timothy. — Where  one  grows  timothy  for 
one's  own  use  one  can  well  afford  to  sow  with  it  alfalfa, 
since  the  alfalfa  will  greatly  enrich  the  timothy  as  hay 
and  will  also  make  it  grow  the  more  vigorously.  To  ac- 
complish the  mixture,  however,  one  must  sow  the  two 
seeds  together,  either  in  August  or  in  spring,  or  else  es- 
tablish the  alfalfa  first  and  later  sow  the  timothy.  We 
may  sow  alfalfa  alone  in  April  or  May  or  June,  depend- 
ing on  situation  and  the  season  best  adapted  to  alfalfa 


SOWING  TIMOTHY   AND   CLOVER  31 

sowing;  then  in  the  fall,  after  the  alfalfa  has  been  har- 
vested, one  can  harrow  in  timothy  seed  with  every  hope 
of  a  stand.  In  the  course  of  three  years  the  timothy  will 
rather  get  the  upper  hand  of  the  alfalfa,  unless  the  land 
is  especially  well  adapted  to  alfalfa,  yet  that  fact  need 
not  deter  one  from  sowing  them  together,  as  when  the 
alfalfa  is  gone  the  timothy  will  be  more  vigorous  than  if 
it  had  not  been  sown  with  it.  Another  method  of  sowing 
timothy  and  alfalfa  together  is  to  sow  them  very  early  in 
April  on  well-prepared  land.  In  this  case  a  seeding  of  a 
bushel  to  the  acre  of  spring  barley  may  be  used,  which 
will  be  cut  for  hay  when  in  bloom  or  soon  afterward.  If 
the  timothy  should  seem  a  little  thin  in  the  fall  a  bit  more 
seed  may  be  sown  then.  It  is  useless  to  sow  alfalfa  ex- 
cept on  well-drained  land  that  has  in  it  plenty  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime.  It  is  true,  however,  that  any  land  that  is 
just  right  for  alfalfa  is  right  to  make  a  maximum  crop 
of  timothy  as  well.  The  mixture  of  alfalfa  and  timothy 
comes  far  nearer  being  a  balanced  ration  than  either  of 
the  plants  used  alone. 

Method  of  Sowing  Timothy  and  Clover. — Timothy  is 
usually  sown  in  the  fall  with  wheat  or  other  fall  sown 
grain.  Hardly  any  crop  is  easier  established.  Given  a 
good  seedbed  and  a  fair  degree  of  fertility  and  the  tim- 
othy seed  sown  with  wheat  in  September  or  October,  one 
will  secure  a  stand  in  nearly  every  instance.  It  is  usual 
to  sow  with  a  grain  drill  having  a  separate  grass-seeding 
compartment  which  scatters  the  seed  in  front  of  the  drill, 
though  some  prefer  to  have  it  fall  behind.  It  is  largely 
a  matter  of  how  the  weather  behaves  that  determines 
which  practice  is  best. 


32  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Quantity  of  Seed. — The  amount  of  seed  used  is  from 
4  to  20  pounds  per  acre.  Very  thick  stands  are  less  pro- 
ductive than  normal  stands.  Probably  a  rational  seeding 
for  ordinary  soils  and  seasons  would  be  one  peck  or  u 
pounds  to  the  acre.  The  clover  is  added  in  the  spring. 
There  are  several  methods  in  vogue  to  get  a  catch  of 
clover  in  wheat  that  has  been  sown  to  timothy.  The  usual 
method  is  to  sow  about  10  pounds  to  the  acre  of  clover  in 
March  when  the  land  has  been  honeycombed  by  frost,  de- 
pending on  the  frost  to  cover  the  seed.  Another  and  bet- 
ter plan,  so  far  as  the  clover  is  concerned,  is  to  wait  till 
the  land  can  be  harrowed,  say  in  April,  and  then  to  sow 
the  seed  and  harrow  sufficiently  to  cover  it  slightly.  With 
care  this  can  be  done  with  no  marked  injury  to  the  tim- 
othy and  with  marked  benefit  to  the  wheat. 

Mixtures  Produce  the  Most  Hay. — Very  much  more 
forage  can  be  taken  from  land  seeded  to  mixtures  of 
grasses  and  clovers  than  when  any  one  plant  has  exclusive 
possession  of  the  soil.  Thus  timothy  and  clover  produce 
more  than  would  timothy  alone,  and  if  more  than  one 
species  of  clover  is  put  in  it  will  yield  more  than  if  red 
clover  alone  is  the  consort.  Alsike  clover  may  be  added, 
a  sprinkle  of  alfalfa,  some  mammoth  red  clover  and  some 
redtop.  Orchard  grass  and  brome  grass  ripen  too  early 
to  be  sown  with  timothy.  Meadow  fescue  added  in  the 
spring  will  help  somewhat.  It  is  really  astonishing  the 
amount  of  herbage  a  mixed  planting  will  yield,  especially 
if  the  land  is  well  enriched  and  has  been  deeply-plowed 
and  well-prepared.  The  different  species  of  plants  have 
somewhat  different  food  requirements  and  habits  of  feed- 
ing. The  legumes  can  utilize  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 


SOWING  AND  MANURING  TIMOTHY  33 

air;  some  root  deeper  than  others  and  thus  by  growing 
them  together  the  whole  soil  and  space  are  best  occupied. 

Sowing  Timothy  Alone. — It  is  not  necessary  nor  al- 
ways desirable  to  sow  timothy  with  a  nurse-crop.  In  any 
region  not  subject  to  very  dry  falls  it  is  good  practice  to 
sow  timothy  and  clover  together  in  late  summer,  say  in 
late  July  or  during  August.  Sown  thus  early  the  grass 
will  make  a  full  crop  of  hay  the  next  year.  This  it  will 
not  do  sown  in  the  fall,  as  there  will  not  be  time  for  the 
fall  seeding  to  grow  a  crop  of  the  bulbs  on  which  the 
rapid  spring  growth  depends.  Getting  a  stand  in  late 
summer  is  dependent  on  good  treatment  of  the  soil.  It 
should  be  plowed  some  time  before  seeding,  and  carefully 
pulverized  as  fast  as  plowed.  After  each  rain  (not  too 
immediately  after)  the  land  must  be  disked  well  and  har- 
rowed to  conserve  moisture  and  yet  more  perfectly  com- 
plete the  pulverization.  The  seed  must  be  sown  when  the 
soil  is  stored  well  with  moisture  beneath  and  in  a  com- 
pact, mellow  condition.  It  must  be  lightly  covered. 
Given  these  conditions,  success  is  almost  certain. 

Feeding  Timothy  Meadozvs. — Timothy  is  a  crop  rather 
exhaustive  to  the  soil.  This  is  especially  true  if  it  is 
grown  in  nearly  a  pure  stand  without  clover.  The  "run- 
ning-out" of  timothy  meadows  is  more  often  the  result 
of  exhaustion  of  readily  available  plant  food  than  of  any 
other  factor.  It  pays  largely  to  feed  timothy  meadows 
and  feed  them  well.  Experience  of  older  countries  like 
England  and  Scotland  is  all  in  favor  of  feeding  grass- 
lands, great  profit  resulting  therefrom.  Now  that  the 
manure  spreader  has  come  to  nearly  every  stock-farm  it 
affords  an  easy  way  to  rejuvenate  a  timothy  meadow.  At 


34  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

any  time  after  the  hay  is  taken  off,  manure  may  be  spread 
evenly  over  the  meadow.  Care  should  be  taken  to  break 
up  large  masses  so  that  the  grass  may  not  be  smothered, 
and  it  should  be  spread  so  evenly  that  while  all  will  be 
covered,  yet  the  grasses  will  be  seen  peering  through.  If 
now  this  manure  has  been  reinforced  with  something  car- 
rying phosphorus,  say  with  acid  phosphate,  using  about 
40  pounds  to  the  ton  of  manure,  or  with  "floats,"  (finely- 
ground  phosphatic  rock)  using  100  pounds  or  more  to 
the  ton  of  manure,  the  fertilization  will  be  quite  complete 
and  very  effective.  No  fear  need  be  felt  that  the  manure 
will  damage  the  next  year's  hay  crop.  The  rains  of  fall 
and  winter  will  have  so  decayed  it  that  it  will  practically 
have  melted  into  the  soil  before  another  year.  Eight  to 
12  tons  to  the  acre  make  a  good  fertilization,  though 
much  less  will  serve  and  give  marked  results  in  the  suc- 
ceeding hay  crop.  I  have  taken  more  than  3  tons  of  tim- 
othy from  an  acre  of  land  top-dressed  with  manure.  The 
same  land  untreated  would  hardly  have  yielded  one  ton, 
and  with  hay  worth  $12  per  ton  it  is  plain  that  the  8  tons 
of  manure  applied  brought  return  of  $24  or  $3  per  ton. 
Furthermore,  there  was  left  considerable  residual  fertility 
in  the  soil  which  subsequent  crops  of  hay  and  corn  recov- 
ered. Where  manure  is  not  available  timothy  meadows 
are  very  responsive  to  artificial  fertilization. 

'Fertilisers  on  Timothy  Meadows. — Quite  a  large  num- 
ber of  field  experiments  with  fertilizers  on  timothy  are 
recorded.  The  grass  seems  unusually  responsive  to  good 
fertilization.  Wheeler  and  Adams  working  at  the  Rhode 
Island  Experiment  Station  reported*  in  1902  experiments 

*  Bulletin  82,  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 


FERTILIZING  MEADOWS 


35 


on  meadows  of  mixed  grasses,  1 5  pounds  of  timothy  sown 
with  7  pounds  of  red  clover  and  7*^  pounds  of  redtop. 
Following  are  given  the  yields  of  field-cured  hay  ob- 
tained, per  acre,  upon  each  of  the  three  plots  in  1901 : 


Nitrogenous  manures  per  acre. 

Pounds  of  hay  per  acre. 

First 
crop. 

Second 
crop. 

Total 
crop. 

Plot  17  none                            

3,050 
5,150 
8,750 

240 
400 
640 

3,290 
5,550 
9,390 

Plot  19.  with  133.52  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  
Plot  21,  with  400.56  pounds  nitrate  of  soda*.  .  .  . 

"Grass  from  like  areas  of  each  plot  was  harvested  in  the  case  of 
the  first  crop,  and  assorted  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
relative  amounts  of  redtop  and  timothy  which  were  present.  Follow- 
ing is  the  result  of  this  examination: 

RELATIVE  PERCENTAGES  OF  REDTOP  AND  TIMOTHY  UPON  THE 
THREE  PLOTS. 


Timothy  
Redtop  

Plot  17. 
Without  nitrogenous 
manures. 

Plot  19. 
With  a  Ys  ration  of 
nitrate  of  soda. 

Plot  21. 
With  a  full  ration  of 
nitrate  of  soda. 

20  per  cent. 
80  per  cent. 

39  per  cent. 
61  per  cent. 

67  per  cent. 
33  per  cent 

"It  will  be  noted  that  with  each  increase  in  nitrate  of  soda  the 
percentage  of  timothy  showed  a  marked  gain,  just  as  was  the  case 
with  the  total  yield  of  hay.  The  most  plausible  explanation  which 
has  suggested  itself  for  this  striking  result,  is  the  influence  upon 
the  growth  of  the  crop  brought  about  by  the  soda  of  the  nitrate 
of  soda,  by  virtue  of  its  tendency  to  render  the  soil  alkaline.  It 
will  be  recalled  that  in  other  experiments  at  this  station,  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  redtop  is  capable  of  thriving  on  soil 
too  sour  (acid)  to  be  suited  to  timothy  and  Kentucky  bluegrass. 
When  nitrate  of  soda  is  applied  to  soils  as  a  manure,  plants  re- 

*Four  hundred  pounds  of  nitrate    of    soda    furnish    about    62 
pounds  of  nitrogen. 


36  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

move  the  nitric  acid  of  the  nitrate  more  rapidly  than  the  soda,  and 
in  consequence,  the  latter,  which  is  capable  of  overcoming  or 
lessening  the  soil  acidity,  tends  to  accumulate  in  the  soil." 

The  plain  lesson  of  this  is  to  sweeten  the  soil  with  lime 
before  making  the  meadow.  Carbonate  of  lime  (ground 
raw  limestone)  is  the  cheapest  and  best  source  of  alkaline 
base  for  restoring  the  sweetness  of  the  soil.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  see  how,  as  the  soil  is  fed,  the  inferior  redtop  re- 
cedes and  the  better  grass  predominates.  On  this  espe- 
cial type  of  Rhode  Island  soil  (rather  markedly  deficient 
in  fertility)  it  was  found  well  to  use  potassium,  phos- 
phorus and  nitrogen  in  the  following  proportions :  807 
pounds  of  1 6  per  cent  acid  phosphate,  200  pounds  of  mu- 
riate of  potash  and  400  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda.  It  is 
very  noticeable  that  fertilization  increased  the  density  of 
the  stand  and  excluded  weeds.  I  again  quote  from  Rhode 
Island  bulletin  82 : 

"In  1900  the  following  numbers  of  grass  stalks  per  square  foot 
were  found  upon  each  of  the  three  plots: 

Plot  without  nitrogen,  222. 

Plot  with  a  one-third  ration   of  nitrogen,   271. 

Plot  with  a  full  ration  of  nitrogen,  236. 

The  greater  quantity  of  nitrate  of  soda  was  an  important  factor 
in  maintaining  the  stand  of  timothy  probably  on  account  of  the 
soda  left  behind,  by  which  the  tendency  of  the  soil  to  become  acid 
(sour)  was  partly  counteracted.  The  largest  yield  of  field-cured 
hay  in  1901  was  9,390  pounds,  or  4.7  tons  per  acre,  which  was 
found  to  be  equivalent  to  7,549  pounds,  or  3.8  tons,  after  lying  in 
the  mow  until  the  following  February.  An  allowance  of  20  per  cent 
to  cover  shrinkage  in  the  barn  was  found  to  be  excessive  except 
in  the  case  of  the  heaviest  crop  of  the  first  cutting,  in  which  case 
,4.4  tons  of  field-cured  hay  were  obtained  per  acre.  The  hay  was, 
in  every  instance,  sufficiently  cured  to  keep  in  the  best  condition 
before  being  weighed  and  stored  in  the  barn.  The  quantities  of 
plant  food  removed  by  the  crop  were  determined.  It  was  found 


USING    CHEMICAL    MANURES 


37 


that  if  supplied  with  everything  else  that  was  necessary,  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  of  manurial  ingredients  were  removed  from  the 
soil  by  1,000  pounds  of  field-cured  hay,  free  from  clover: 

5.6   to  5.8  pounds  of  nitrogen. 

14.7  to  16.2  pounds  of  actual  potash   (K2O). 

3.3  to  3.5  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  (P2O6). 

"The  early  application  of  top-dressing  is  of  vital  importance  in 
a  dry  season  such  as  that  of  1900,  when,  notwithstanding  the  severe 
drouth,  4.1  tons  of  field-cured  hay  were  harvested  per  acre.  At 
present  the  great  drawback  to  profitable  grass  culture  in  New  Eng- 
land is  the  neglect  systematically  to  top-dress  mowing  lands  and  a 
general  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  relative  quantities  and  absolute 
amounts  of  chemical  manures  to  apply.  If  every  one  of  the  78,824 
acres  of  grass  land  in  Rhode  Island  were  treated  in  an  intelligent 
and  economical  manner,  the  increased  revenue  to  the  state  would 
be  enormous.  The  facts  presented  ought  to  emphasize  the  impor- 
tance of  chemical  manures." 

In  1902  the  experiment  was  continued,  each  plot  re- 
ceiving phosphorus,  potassium  and  two  of  them  nitro- 
gen. Below  are  given  the  quantities  of  nitrate  of  soda 
applied  per  acre,  and  the  amounts  of  actual  nitrogen  con- 
tained therein : 


Plot  17. 

Plot  19. 

Plot  21. 

Nitrate  of  soda  

Pounds. 
None. 

Pounds. 
138-12 

Pounds. 
414  35 

Nitrogen  in  the  nitrate  of  soda  

None. 

21.00 

63.00 

"The  following  are  the  amounts  of  field-cured  hay  harvested 
in  1902,  upon  each  of  the  three  plots: 


No.  of  Plot. 

Amount  of  nitrogen  per  acre. 

Pounds  of 
hay  per  acre. 

Plot  17 

Without  nitrogen 

2  950 

Plot  19  
Plot  21  

With  21  pounds  of  nitrate  nitrogen  
With  63  pounds  of  nitrate  nitrogen  

4,850 
8,200 

38 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


"In  1901  a  careful  examination  was  made  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive percentages  of  the  two  chief  grasses  on  each  of  the  three 
plots.  It  was  found  on  the  plot  without  nitrogen  that  these  per- 
centages for  timothy  and  redtop  were  20  and  80  respectively, 
upon  the  plot  with  one-third  ration  of  nitrogen  they  were  39  and 
61,  and  where  the  full  ration  of  nitrogen  was  used  they  were  67 
and  33.  Similar  though  perhaps  more  marked  differences  were 
noticed  this  season.  This  is  the  fourth  successive  demonstration 
of  the  importance  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  maintaining  a  stand  of 
timothy. 

An  interesting  and  important  finding  from  these  ex- 
periments was  that  timothy  grown  on  land  well  supplied 
with  nitrogen  was  itself  richer  in  that  element.  Nitro- 
gen is  the  element  from  which  protein  is  largely  com- 
posed and  it  is  well  known  that  feeds  rich  in  nitrogen  are 
most  costly  to  purchase  and  best  adapted  to  building  body 
tissues  in  animals  and  to  making  milk.  That  this  experi- 
ment in  Rhode  Island  paid  well  the  following  financial 
results  per  acre  in  1902  show : 


Plot  17. 
Without 
nitrogen. 

Plot  19. 
With  a  %  ration 
of  nitrogen. 

Plot  21. 
With  a  full 
ration  of  nitrogen. 

Tons  of  field-cured  hay 

1  475 

2.425 

4.100 

Tons  of  barn-cured  hay  

Value  of  crop  based  upon  $16  per 
ton  for  barn-cured  hay*  

1.280 
$20.48 

2.042 
$32.67 

3.444 
$55.10 

Cost  of  the  manures  t 

13.04 

16.15 

22-36 

Difference 

$7.44 

$16.52 

$32.74 

"Comparing  the  results  upon  plots  17  and  19,  it  will  be  seen  that 
an  extra  outlay  of  $3.11   for  nitrate  of  soda  on  plot  19  gave  an 

*The  actual  price  of  hay  has  been  considerably  in  excess  of  the 
value  used  in  thxs  estimate. 

tMuriate  of  potash  valued  at  $42,  acid  phosphate  at  $15,  and 
nitrate  of  soda  at  $45  per  ton,  respectively.  These  prices  are 
above  what  most  of  the  goods  could  certainly  have  been  bought 
for  early  in  the  season. 


PASTURING  TIMOTHY  39 

additional  net  profit  of  $9.08.  Comparing  the  data  in  the  case  of 
plots  17  and  21,  it  will  be  seen  that  an  expenditure  of  $9.32  for 
nitrate  of  soda  resulted  in  an  additional  net  profit  of  $25.30  per 
acre.  In  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  increase  in  the  profits  from 
the  use  of  liberal  amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda,  the  value  of  the 
crop  over  that  of  the  manures  is  given  for  the  plot  without  nitrate 
of  soda,  for  that  with  a  one-third  ration,  and  for  that  with  a  full 
ration  of  the  nitrate.  These  data  show  the  results  secured  for  the 
entire  period  of  four  years  already  covered  by  the  experiment,  as 
follows : 

PLOT    NO.    17,    WITHOUT    NITROGEN. 

Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures*  in  1899..$  6.09 
Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures  in  1900...  13.42 
Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures  in  1901...  12.13 
Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures  in  1902...  7.44 

Total  for  the  four  years $39.08 

PLOT   NO.    19,    WITH    A   ONE-THIRD    RATION    OF    NITRATE   OF   SODA. 
(21    LBS.    OF   NITROGEN    PER   ACRE.) 

Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manuresf  in  1899.  .  .$14.34 
Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures  in  1900., 
Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures  in  1901. 
Value  of  the  crop  over  that  of  the  manures  in  1902. 

Total  for  the  four  years $75.20 

Pasturing  Timothy. — Timothy  is  not  well  adapted  to 
being  pastured.  Animals  grazing  it  close  soon  destroy  it. 
The  bulbs  must  have  chance  to  develop  and  store  them- 
selves with  nutriment  for  the  following  year,  and  pastur- 
ing would  not  allow  this.  It  is  injurious  to  a  timothy 
meadow  to  pasture  it  after  the  hay  has  been  cut.  The 
one  exception  to  this  rule  is,  should  there  be  danger  of 
so  much  aftermath  lying  on  the  ground  that  it  will  en- 
danger smothering  or  harbor  too  large  a  number  of  field 
mice,  it  may  be  well  to  pasture  lightly  in  the  fall.  There 
is  a  time  in  late  spring  when  the  weed  commonly  called 

*Potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  fPotash.  phosphoric  acid,  and 
nitrogen. 


40  MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

whitetop  (Erigeronannuus)  appears  and  threatens  greatly 
to  injure  the  market  quality  of  the  timothy  hay.  If  sheep 
are  put  in  for  a  time  (before  the  timothy  is  jointed)  they 
will  eat  out  most  of  the  whitetop  and  leave  the  meadow 
clean.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  the  sheep  remain 
long  enough  to  eat  down  the  timothy,  or  the  cure  will  be 
as  bad  as  the  disease,  unless  the  season  proves  very  moist 
and  favoring.  Sheep  on  timothy  in  winter  will  nearly 
destroy  it  by  eating  the  bulbs,  which  are  tender  and  nour- 
ishing. 

Mice  in  Timothy  Meadows. — The  common  short-tailed 
meadow  mouse  is  a  great  pest  in  timothy.  It  lives  on  the 
bulbs  which  are  sweet  and  nutritious.  I  have  found  the 
underground  burrows  of  these  mice  packed  full  of  tim- 
othy bulbs.  The  remedy  for  mice  is  to  have  many  cats 
about  the  farm,  feeding  them  milk  at  the  barns,  to  pro- 
tect sparrow  and  other  small  hawks,  and  to  scatter  poi- 
soned grain  about  in  the  meadows  where  their  runs 
abound,  doing  this  so  far  as  possible  in  such  manner  as 
not  to  destroy  innocent  wild  birds  and  domestic  animals. 
Quail  seldom  if  ever  eat  shelled  corn  which  mice  greedily 
devour. 

Do  not  Clip  Timothy  too  Close. — Close-cutting  of  tim- 
othy meadows  is  most  injurious  to  them.  I  have  tested 
this  thing  well  and  have  nearly  destroyed  meadows  by 
very  close  cutting.  At  least  two  of  the  lower  joints  of 
the  stem  should  be  left  if  the  future  good  of  the  meadow 
is  considered. 

The  Life  of  a  Timothy  Meadow. — There  are  soils  so 
well  suited  naturally  to  timothy  grass  that  meadows  of 
it  may  endure  thereon  for  many  years.  Ordinarily,  in 


TIMOTHY   LEADS   TO   PASTURE  41 

the  cornbelt  region,  timothy  is  more  profitable  the  first 
and  second  years  after  sowing  than  it  ever  is  afterward. 
Kentucky  bluegrass  runs  into  it  wherever  the  soil  is  fairly 
rich  in  lime.  Timothy  declines  in  vigor,  owing)  no  doubt 
usually  to  lack  of  feeding  and  to  hard  pasturing  in  the 
fall  after  hay  has  been  cut.  Doubtless  with  good  feed- 
ing on  suitable,  moist,  rich  soil  in  cool  climates  timothy, 
can  be  kept  for  six  or  even  10  years,  but  for  most  farm- 
ers its  profitable  life  will  be  found  to  be  but  two,  three 
or  four  years;  then  it  will  need  plowing  and  the  land 
planted  to  some  other  crop  allowing  good  clean  cultiva- 
tion, with  enriching,  after  which  the  timothy  may  be  re- 
sown. 

Timothy  as  a  Bridging  Pasture. — While  not  a  good 
grass  for  permanent  pasture,  except  in  mixture,  timothy 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  crops  that  can  be  sown  with 
other  grasses  where  one  wishes  something  on  which  ani- 
mals may  feed  while  other  and  slower  grasses  are  becom- 
ing established.  Thus  in  making  a  bluegrass  pasture, 
timothy  may  well  be  sown  with  bluegrass  and  will  afford 
grazing  for  a  year  or  two  while  the  bluegrass  is  becom- 
ing established. 

SUMMARY. 

Timothy  is  perhaps  the  easiest  established  of  cultivated 
grasses.  It  is  the  -standard  hay  grass.  It  is  of  rather 
low  nutritive  value  compared  with  alfalfa  or  even  when 
compared  with  other  grasses,  its  protein  content  being 
quite  low.  It  has,  however,  considerably  more  pro- 
tein in  its  composition  when  cut  early.  Probably  the 
greatest  feeding  value  is  obtained  by  cutting  timothy  when 


42  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

/ 

in  bloom  or  very  soon  afterward.  Clovers  enrich  timothy 
hay  and  add  much  to  its  thrift  and  yield.  Alfalfa  grows 
well  with  timothy  on  dry,  rich  soils  having  enough  lime. 
Timothy  rapidly  exhausts  the  soil  of  nitrogen  and  tim- 
othy meadows  are  wonderfully  helped  by  applications  of 
stable  manure  or  fertilizers.  When  fertilizers  are  used 
they  should  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  nitrogen. 
Timothy  is  a  short-lived  pasture  grass  and  for  best  re- 
sults as  meadow  should  be  very  lightly  pastured  in  the 
fall  or  left  untouched.  It  is  a  good  temporary  pasture 
to  afford  feed  while  bluegrass  is  coming  in. 

Redtop  (Agrostis  alba). — It  is  curious  how  plants  find 
their  best-suited  environment ;  each  one  has  its  place.  The 
place  for  redtop  is  on  soil  rather  moist,  deficient  in  lime 
and  somewhat  deficient  in  fertility.  Not  that  redtop  will 
not  thrive  in  rich  soil,  but  it  will  endure  a  degree  of  soil 
poverty  that  timothy  and  Kentucky  bluegrass  will  not 
endure.  When  one  has  a  soil  that  is  not  quite  rich  enough 
nor  dry  enough  for  timothy  one  may  hope  to  get  a  vig- 
orous growth  of  redtop.  Indeed  it  will  almost  grow  in 
the  water.  Redtop  is  a  slender  grass  somewhat  of  the 
type  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  but  taller-growing,  with  a 
creeping  underground  root-stock  which  makes  it  spread 
rather  fast  and  soon  form  on  suitable  soil  a  dense  sod. 
It  grows  2'  or  more  high  and  yields  from  i  to  2  tons  of 
hay  per  acre.  It  makes  good  pasture.  It  is  not  so  soon 
established  as  timothy  but  increases  in  thickness  for  sev- 
eral years  after  sowing.  Redtop  is  a  variable  grass,  as- 
suming new  characters  in  each  different  situation.  In 
England  it  is  declared  to  be  of  little  growth.  In  New 
England  it  is  considered  a  good  hay  and  fine  grazing. 


THE   MERITS  OF  REDTOP 


43 


Redtop    (Agrostis   Vulgaris), 


44  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Prof.  J.  B.  Killibrew  declares  that  in  Tennessee  "It  will 
grow  upon  every  soil  and  give  more  general  satisfaction 
than  any  other  grass.  It  is  scattered  over  the  whole  state 
of  Tennessee.  The  writer  has  seen  it  growing  vigorously 
on  the  highest  mountains  of  east  Tennessee  as  well  as  in 
the  deepest  valleys,  on  the  sandstone  soil  of  the  Cumber- 
land table  land  and  on  the  cherty  soils  of  the  highland 
rim.  It  sparkles  in  the  beauty  of  its  verdure  on  the  lime- 
stone soils  of  the  central  basin  and  acquires  its  largest 
growth  in  the  sandy  river  and  creek  basins  of  west  Ten- 
nessee. There  is  no  place  in  Tennessee  in  which  it  does 
not  prove  a  profitable  grass  to  the  farmers." 

Redtop  will  grow  as  far  south  as  New  Orleans  and  in 
north  Louisiana  is  sometimes  sown  for  pasture  and  hay; 
it  will  yield  well  on  the  moist  bottoms  throughout  all 
the  South.  While  it  makes  good  grazing  it  is  not  so  nu- 
tritious nor  so  well  liked  as  bluegrass.  It  is,  however, 
much  more  adaptable  to  soils  and  climates  than  bluegrass. 
It  contains  more  protein  than  timothy.  Animals  com- 
monly prefer  timothy  and .  farmers  prefer  it  because  it 
yields  more.  Redtop,  they  say,  is  a  good  grass  when  one 
is  not  ready  to  get  a  better  one.  It  has  the  widest  range 
of  any  grass  in  America,  from  the  gulf  to  the  northern 
limits  of  agriculture  in  Canada,  from  the  Atlantic  Sea- 
board (where  because  of  lime  shortage  in  the  soil  it  is 
common)  to  the  high  meadows  <and  parks  of  the  western 
mountains. 

To  oust  redtorj  and  get  timothy  or  bluegrass  instead, 
one  has  but  to  drain,  cure  the  acidity  of  the  land,  and 
make  it  fertile.  Ordinarily  the  use  of  2  to  8  tons  to  the 
acre  of  finely-ground  raw  limestone  or  2  to  3  tors  of  air- 


REDTOP  FOR  FRESH  FORAGE  45 

slaked  lime  will  restore  the  alkalinity  of  the  soil,  and  then 
manure  or  fertilizers  will  afford  food  for  the  better  grass- 
es. As  redtop  holds  the  land  in  a  dense  growth,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  plow,  till  and  reseed  in  order  quickly  to 
displace  it.  Redtop  is  not  to  be  despised  and  when  one's 
land  is  not  ready  for  a  better  grass  or  one's  climate  fa- 
vors, one  should  utilize  it.  Carman  of  the  Kentucky  Ex- 
periment Station  reports  in  comparative  yields  of  fresh 
forage.  Redtop,  4.80  tons  to  the  acre;  Bromus  inermis, 
7.20;  Orchard  grass,  8.40;  Timothy,  7.12;  Canada  blue- 
grass,  2.64 ;  Kentucky  bluegrass,  4.08.  It  is  evident  then 
that  the  generally  conceded  superiority  of  bluegrass  over 
redtop  lies  in  its  greater  palatability  and  somewhat  su^ 
perior  nutrition.  It  is  notable  that  while  analyses  in 
America  report  redtop  to  be  fairly  nutritious,  at  least  as 
much  so  as  timothy,  in  England  it  is  disliked  and  de- 
nounced. Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  says :  "It  flourishes  most  on 
dry  soils  and  is  a  troublesome  weed  on  arable  land,  dis- 
liked by  cattle  and  sheep.  It  is  reported  as  useless  and 
should  be  discouraged  as  much  as  possible.  In  manur- 
ing the  land  the  proportion  of  this  grass  was  very  much 
reduced  in  every  instance,  a  result  certainly  not  to  be  re- 
gretted." 

To  sum  up  opinions  concerning  redtop,  it  is  not  a 
grass  of  first  quality;  it  suits  certain  soils,  and  is  adapt- 
able as  to  climates.  It  thrives  in  high  mountain  valleys 
and  on  wet  land  and  on  land  deficient  in  lime  and  fer- 
tility. Drainage,  limestone  and  fertility  will  bring  in  bet- 
ter grasses. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — Redtop  seed  in  the  chaff  weighs 
about  10  to  12  pounds  per  bushel,  the  recleaned  seed  35 


46  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

pounds.  It  is  commonly  sown  with  wheat  in  the  fall,  10 
to  15  pounds  of  recleaned  seed  or  double  that  of  seed  in 
the  chaff  being  used.  It  may  also  be  sown  alone  very 
early  in  spring  or  with  a  nurse-crop  of  oats  or  barley 
which  should  be  mown  off  for  hay  when  in  bloom. 

Orchard  Grass  (Dactylus  glomerata). — This  is  the 
cock's  foot  grass  of  England  and  the  English  colonies. 
It  grows  3'  to  5'  high.  Most  of  the  weight  of  hay  is 
from  the  leaves  near  the  ground.  It  is  one  of  our  best 
grasses.  It  is  not  much  in  use  as  yet  for  several  reasons. 
Orchard  grass  seed  is  not  so  easily  sown  as  timothy  seed 
nor  in  so  abundant  supply.  It  is,  however,  easy  to  get  a 
stand  of  orchard  grass  and  it  is  a  vigorous,  thrifty  grass 
yielding  much  leafy  forage  and  a  fair  amount  of  hay.  It 
yields  about  the  same  amount  of  hay  as  timothy  and  the 
hay  is  much  richer  in  protein  if  cut  at  the  right  time.  As 
a  pasture  grass,  it  is  a  little  richer  than  timothy  and  about 
half  as  rich  in  protein  as  bluegrass.  At  the  Kentucky 
station  orchard  grass  yielded  in  green  forage  cut  June 
12,  8.4  tons  to  the  acre;  dry  hay,  3.6  tons.  Timothy  cut 
July  2  yielded  of  fresh  forage,  7.12  tons;  dry  hay,  3.68 
tons.  Kentucky  bluegrass  cut  June  n  yielded,  fresh, 
4.8;  dry  hay,  1.68.  Bromus  inermis  cut  June  17,  fresh, 
7.2 ;  dry  hay,  3.04.  It  is  evident  from  these  comparisons, 
which  I  think  are  fairly  typical,  that  orchard  grass  is  of 
great  merit,  judging  it  by  its  yield  and  quality.  It  must 
also  be  considered  that  orchard  grass  mown  so  early  will 
yield  a  good  deal  of  good  aftermath  which  may  be  grazed 
with  no  injury  to  the  sward,  if  not  grazed  too  closely, 
while  timothy  is  seriously  hurt  by  grazing  after  the  hay 
has  been  cut. 


ORCHARD  GRASS 


Orchard    Grass    (Dactylis    glomerata). 


48  MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

Why  is  orchard  grass  so  little  used  ?  Mainly  because 
the  seed  costs  more  than  timothy  and  it  takes  more  of  it. 
Timothy  seed  at  present  (June  15,  1910)  is  worth  $6  per 
loo  pounds;  orchard  grass,  $16,  Further,  it  is  customary 
to  sow  three  times  as  much  orchard  grass  seed  as  timothy 
seed  to  the  acre.  To  offset  this  fact,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  orchard  grass  lasts  much  longer  than  timothy ; 
in  truth,  on  suitable  soil,  it  lasts  indefinitely,  and  even 
spreads  to  adjacent  fields,  encroaching  on  bluegrass.  I 
have  watched  the  behavior  of  this  grass  in  many  states 
and  am  assured  that  it  has  much  more  value  than  is  com- 
monly ascribed  to  it.  Animals  much  prefer  to  eat  blue- 
grass  or  brome  grass  and  so  it  is  not  wise  to  mix  orchard 
grass  with  these  grasses.  When  orchard  grass  is  used 
as  pasture  it  should  be  fenced  to  itself,  not  left  adjacent 
to  another  pasture  of  bluegrass,  since  animals  will  neg- 
lect the  orchard  grass  for  the  better-liked  forage.  It  is 
thought  that  cattle  will  put  on  more  fat  grazing  bluegrass 
than  orchard  grass.  While  this  may  be  true,  yet  as  or- 
chard grass  yields  about  twice  as  much  per  acre  it  might 
easily  make  the  most  pounds  of  beef.  Henry  Fairfax 
of  Loudoun  Co.,  Va.,  likes  orchard  grass  and  makes 
horse  pastures  of  it.  His  horses  are  as  good  as  are  pro- 
duced anywhere.  On  the  other  hand,  his  neighbor,  E. 
B.  White,  destroys  orchard  grass  and  replaces  it  with 
bluegrass.  Both  men  are  very  successful,  which  is  a  curi- 
ous illustration  of  the  difficulty  of  reaching  truth  from 
observing  the  farm  practices  of  others. 

On  Woodland  Farm  we  have  one  pasture  of  orchard 
grass  that  carries  annually  a  great  burden  of  live  stock. 
Orchard  grass  is  a  rank  feeder,  and  this  pasture  is  occa- 


ORCHARD  GRASS  FOR  GRAZING  49 

sionally  covered  over  thinly  with  stable  manure.  Here  it 
has  been  observed  that  while  animals  graze  the  orchard 
grass  well  they  gnaw  close  the  spots  where  bluegrass 
grows.  After  orchard  grass  gets  old  and  rank,  say  by  the 
middle  of  June,  animals  do  not  like  to  graze  it.  Rank 
spots  in  pastures  should  therefore  be  mown  and  made  in- 
to hay,  after  which  the  fresh  new  grass  will  be  grazed  as 
it  comes  up  and  the  field  will  be  thus  eaten  off  together. 


Growth    of    Orchard    Grass   April    10    in    Tennessee. 

I  have  observed  that  where  a  great  burden  of  grass  was 
left  on  the  land  all  winter,  it  sometimes  smothered  out 
the  roots,  so  there  is  no  economy  in  not  using  it  either  by 
grazing  or  mowing  or  both. 

It  will  not  do  at  all  to  mix  brome  grass  (Bromus  iner- 
mis)  with  orchard  grass,  although  at  first  thought  it 
would  seem  an  ideal  mixture,  as  the  brome  grass  has  a 
great  tendency  to  thicken  up  by  underground  stems  while 
prchard  grass  is  inclined  to  grow  in  bunches.  The  chief 


50  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

objection  to  mixing  these  grasses  is  that  animals  like 
brome  grass  so  much  better  than  orchard  grass  that  they 
will  not  touch  the  latter  while  they  can  get  the  brome, 
which  is  soon  weakened  by  too  close  grazing  and  finally 
nearly  disappears.  When  used  as  a  meadow,  this  mix- 
ture would  do  very  well. 

Brome  Grass  (Bromus  inermis). — Brome  grass  is  of 
rather  recent  introduction  from  Europe.  It  is  prized  in 
south-eastern  Europe  for  both  hay  and  pasture.  It  was 
introduced  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  dissem- 
inated throughout  the  West  and  Northwest  in  the  hope 
that  it  might  prove  adapted  to  the  semi-arid  regions.  This 
hope  has  been  in  part  realized.  It  is  fairly  drouth-resist- 
ant. It  will  not  make  much  growth  during  dry  weather, 
but  it  survives  to  grow  when  rain  comes.  Brome  grass 
makes  considerable  hay  of  nutritious  quality  if  cut  early. 
It  is  hardy  and  one  of  the  first  grasses  to  start  in  spring; 
nor  is  it  cut  down  by  frost  till  all  else  is  killed.  As  a  pas- 
ture grass  in  regions  adapted  to  its  growth,  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  there  is  a  better.  It  out-yields  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  by  100  per  cent,  and  animals  like  it  fully  as  well, 
often  indeed  preferring  it.  The  forage  is  tender,  juicy 
and  sweet.  Brome  grass  is  a  vigorous  perennial  with 
stems  2'  to  5'  high,  rather  broad  blades  like  oats,  slender 
seed  stalks,  a  wealth  of  leaves  lower  down  and  a  habit 
of  making  a  good  deal  of  second  growth  of  blades  after 
being  mown  off.  It  has  a  habit  of  thickening  and  spread- 
ing by  strong  creeping  root-stocks,  so  that  a  thin  stand 
soon  thickens  and  indeed  the  danger  is  that  the  sod  may 
become  so  interlaced  with  roots  and  the  stems  so  crowded 
that  the  growth  will  be  very  short.  When  the  grass  thus 


BROME   GRASS 


51 


52  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

becomes  sod-bound  it  is  common  to  plow  it  or  disk  it 
thoroughly,  when  it  will  in  a  short  time  reestablish  itself 
and  produce  well  again. 

Brome  grass  makes  nutritious  and  palatable  hay,  if  cut 
early,  the  best  time  being  when  the  heads  are  in  flower. 
There  will  afterward  be  a  considerable  growth  of  leaves 
that  may  be  mown  or  depastured.  Brome  grass  is  very 
easily  established  if  fresh  seed  is  sown.  I  have  had  best 
success  sowing  it  quite  early  in  spring  on  a  well-prepared 
seedbed.  It  should  never  be  sown  alone  but  with  some 
sort  of  clover  or  alfalfa.  Alone,  brome  grass  often  be- 
comes unproductive  through  its  exhaustion  of  the  nitro- 
gen from  the  soil ;  mixed  with  clovers  or  alfalfa  it  re- 
mains productive  for  a  very  much  longer  time. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — The  seed  of  brome  grass  is  light, 
weighing  about  14  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  20  pounds 
are  commonly  sown  to  the  acre.  If  sown  with  clovers  I 
would  use  less,  seeking  to  get  a  full  stand  of  clover  or  al- 
falfa and  a  thin  stand  of  brome  grass,  after  which  it  will 
rapidly  thicken  itself  by  means  of  its  many  creeping  un- 
derground stems.  In  time  it  will  probably  take  posses- 
sion of  the  land  and  after  a  while  need  either  fertilization 
or  plowing  and  reseeding.  The  Nebraska  Experiment 
Station  showed  that  unproductive  brome  grass  could  be 
made  to  yield  well  by  simply  disking  it  thoroughly  and 
sowing  clover  in  it. 

There  are  some  dangers  in  brome  grass  seeding.  One 
is  that  one  may  get  quack  grass  seed.  On  Woodland 
Farm,  seed  sown  in  1897,  and  received  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  mixed  with 
quack  grass  and  brought  the  first  of  this  grass  to  the 


TWO  VALUABLE  FESCUES  53 

farm.  One  should  buy  brome  grass  seed  from  a  repu- 
table seedsman  who  knows  its  source.  It  has  been  re- 
ported that  brome  grass  is  hard  to  get  out  of  land.  We 
have  not  found  this  true,  but  when  planted  to  corn  the 
grass  is  readily  subdued  and  does  not  return.  I  would 
not  sow  brome  grass  for  meadow  alone  where  timothy 
succeeds  well  nor  in  the  South  where  it  has  never  suc- 
ceeded except  in  the  higher  altitudes.  Along  the  west- 
ern edge  of  the  timothy  belt,  brome  grass  is  well  worthy 
of  trial.  It  shares  with  meadow  fescue  the  esteem  of 
experimenters  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  It  is  preemi- 
nently a  pasture  grass. 

Meadow  Fescue  and  Tall  Fescue^,  (Festuca  pratensis — 
F.  elatior), — It  is  curious  the  way  American  farmers 
follow  closely  in  one  another's  footsteps  and  imitate  one 
another's  farm  practices.  This  is  illustrated  well  in  the 
case  of  the  fescues.  They  are  admirable  grasses,  more 
nutritious  and  palatable  than  timothy,  larger  yielding 
than  Kentucky  bluegrass,  far  better  from  the  viewpoint 
of  the  animals  than  orchard  grass  or  redtop,  yet  one  can 
travel  very  far  and  see  not  one  field  of  meadow  fescue. 
I  once  rode  more  than  half  way  across  Ohio  by  automo- 
bile and  scanned  closely  the  wayside  fields  to  see  what 
was  growing  within.  I  saw  abundant  fields  of  timothy, 
many  fields  of  red  clover,  a  few  of  alfalfa,  much  blue- 
grass  of  two  sorts,  a  few  bits  of  orchard  grass,  more  of 
redtop  and  not  one  of  meadow  fescue.  It  was  not  be- 
cause the  grass  was  not  adapted  to  the  soil,  because  along 
the  roadsides  it  had  come  of  its  own  accord,  curiously 
enough,  and  oftentimes  was  displacing  bluegrass.  Prob- 
ably the  reason  why  farmers  do  not  sow  more  fescues  is 


54 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


Meadow  Fescue   (Festuca  Elatior). 


MERITS   OF    MEADOW    FESCUE  55 

that  they  are  not  often  offered  by  seed  dealers  and  when 
they  are  bought  the  seed  may  be  old  and  poor  or  adulter- 
ated, so  that  one  does  not  get  what  one  desires.  Certain 
it  is  that  they  are  well  worth  a  wider  field  than  they  now 
have.  As  it  is,  meadow  fescue  is  now  prized  in  eastern 
Kansas  and  in  parts  of  Washington  and  Oregon.  In  Eu- 
rope too  meadow  fescue  is  one  of  the  highly  prized 
grasses  both  for  pasture  and  meadow,  and  is  a  component 
part  of  nearly  every  mixture.  Englishmen  nearly  always 
sow  grass  mixtures,  seldom  a  grass  alone. 

Meadow  fescue  is  a  perennial  growing  about  3'  high. 
F.  elatior  is  a  taller-growing  species  or  variety.  It  is 
commonly  called  "tall  meadow  fescue"  or  "Randall 
grass"  or  "evergreen  grass."  These  fescues  spread  rather 
slowly  from  the  root,  and  lack  that  vigorous  suckering 
habit  that  belongs  to  the  poas,  brome  grass  and  redtop. 
They  endure  a  long  time  in  suitable  soils,  once  established. 
It  endures  dry  weather  well.  It  is  thus  a  good  grass  for 
regions  a  little  too  far  west  for  timothy.  It  is  "nip  and 
tuck"  between  meadow  fescue  and  brome  grass  in  the  es- 
teem of  some  western  farmers,  though  brome  grass  has 
the  advantage  of  spreading  and  thickening  when  one  gets 
a  partial  stand.  These  grasses  do  not  yield  so  much  hay 
as  timothy.  Practically  speaking,  I  think  meadow  fes- 
cue should  -be  in  all  meadow  mixtures  and  in  most  pas- 
ture mixtures.  It  associates  well  with  other  grasses  and 
endures  for  a  long  time  in  the  soil,  far  longer  than  tim- 
othy. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — The  seed  of  meadow  fes- 
cue weighs  22  pounds  to  the  bushel;  of  tall  fescue  14 
pounds.  If  sown  alone  a  bushel  of  seed  would  be  none 


56  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

too  much  for  an  acre.     It  seems  that  the  great  place  for 
these  fescues  in  America  is  in  mixtures. 

Sheep  Fescue. — While  not  a  meadow  grass,  we  may 
as  well  mention  this  little  grass  at  this  time.  It  makes 
very  dense  tufts  of  narrow,  rather  hard,  deep  green,  al- 
most blue  blades  with  rather  few  seed  stems.  It  grows 
about  i'  high.  It  is  frequently  advised  as  a  good  grass 
for  poor  pastures  and  for  sheep.  I  recall  with  lively 
interest  climbing  steep  hill  pastures  in  the  south  of 
England  that  were  carpeted  with  this  grass  and  that 
were  so  slippery  with  it  that  I  could  hardly  stand.  The 
sheep  seemed  to  eat  the  cultivated  crops  in  the  folds  be- 
low to  the  bare  earth,  leaving  their  fescue  almost  un- 
touched. In  an  effort  to  have  a  good  example  of  it  on 
Woodland  Farm  I  have  sown  considerable  seed  with  the 
net  result  of  a  few  scattered  plants.  It  is  apparently 
of  no  value  except  as  an  admixture  for  poor  pastures. 
Carman  reports,  however,  that  with  him  it  yielded  at  the 
rate  of  2.24  tons  of  dry  hay  to  the  acre,  at  Lexington, 
Ky. 

The  Rye  Grasses. — Of  the  Loliums  there  are  about 
20  species,  distributed  about  the  north  temperate  zone. 
Of  these  two  are  in  use  through  cultivation,  L.  perennc, 
and  Loliinn  perenne,  var.  Italicum,  or  perennial  rye  grass, 
and  Italian  rye  grass.  Neither  grass  is  much  in  use  in 
America.  The  Italian  rye  grass  is  at  best  a  short-lived 
grass,  living  but  a  year  or  two;  the  perennial  rye  grass 
lives  for  two  to  five  years  and  by  seeding  itself  seems 
to  live^longer. 

Rye  grasses  are  easily  established  and  make  a  rather 
large  amount  of  hay.  The  perennial  rye  grass  is  com- 


THE  RYE  GRASSES 


57 


Sheep  Fescue   (Festuca  ovina). 


58  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

monly  called  "English"  rye  grass.  It  is  largely  in  use 
in  England  but  almost  unknown  in  America  except  west 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Animals 
prefer  rye  grasses  to  most  other  cultivated  grasses,  the 
seed  is  usually  good  and  the  grass  makes  a  great  amount, 
as  much  as  40  bushels  to  the  acre,  so  that  the  farmer 
can  save  his  own  seed  with  ease  if  he  likes.  On  the 
irrigated  plains  of  northern  Italy  rye  grass  makes  great 
crops  and  in  England  and  Scotland  where  there  are 
irrigated  farms  it  is  employed  and  makes  as  many  as  four 
cuttings  in  a  year  of  very  heavy  forage.  Spillman  says 
that  the  sewage  meadows  near  Edinburgh  grow  rye 
grass  and  yield  enormously;  also  that  it  is  grown  much 
in  western  California,  Oregon  and  Washington  on  the 
moist  dyked  lands. 

Rye  grass  was  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  adopted 
into  culivation.  Spillman  remarks  that  the  early  English 
husbandmen  at  first  made  no  attempt  to  separate  the 
various  grasses  but  grew  them  altogether.  Later  they 
began  saving  the  seed  of  rye  grass  and  it  has  been  popu- 
lar ever  since.  It  is  said  that  it  was  taken  to  Europe 
from  England.  The  Italian  grass  sown  in  the  fall  makes 
a  fine  winter  lawn  for  the  South,  and  is  considerably 
used  in  this  way. 

From  my  observations,  the  rye  grasses  are  probably 
desirable  in  mixtures  for  pasture  and  meadow,  and  have 
hardly  received  the  attention  that  they  deserve  in 
America. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Soiv. — The  seed  weighs  20  pounds 
per  bushel  and  commonly  about  two  and  one- 
half  bushels  are  sown  to  the  acre.  Rye  grass  is  in 


THE  RYE  GRASSES 


59 


Italian  Ryegrass   (Lolium  perenne). 


*)  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

America  not  so  very  productive.  Carman  reported  a 
yield  of  2.24  tons  to  the  acre  for  Italian  rye  grass  and 
2.32  tons  for  perennial  rye  grass.  This  is  not  encourag- 
ing when  smooth  brome  grass  made  3.04  tons,  orchard 
grass  3.6  tons,  and  timothy,  3.68  tons. 

Tall  Oatgrass. — According  to  Hunt,  tall  oatgrass 
(Arrhenatherum  claims)  is  closely  related  to  the  common 
cultivated  oat,  and  also  to  the  common  wild  oatgrass 
(Danthonia  spicata),  which  forms  a  portion  of  the  herb- 
age of  permanent  pastures  and  meado\vs  on  the  poorer 
soils  of  the  North  Atlantic  states.  The  tall  oatgrass  is 
a  fibrous-rooted,  erect,  tall  grass  growing  on  suitable 
soil  3'  to  5'  high,  with  a  long  open  panicle  bearing  two- 
flowered  spikelets.  It  yields  an  abundance  of  coarse 
forage,  and  will  grow  on  rather  sandy  soils  where  other 
grasses  do  not  thrive  so  well ;  but  in  the  United  States  its 
lack  of  palatability  has  prevented  its  extensive  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  known  in  France  as  ray  grass,  where,  as  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  it  is  highly  prized.  The  seed  is 
principally  imported,  but  it  can  be  easily  harvested.  It 
may  be  bound,  cured  in  shocks,  and  threshed  as  in  case 
of  common  oats. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — There  are  1 50,000  seeds  to 
the  pound.  About  50  pounds  of  seed  with  a  germinating 
power  of  70  per  cent  are  required  to  sow  an  acre.  Gar- 
man  reports  a  weight  of  dry  hay  of  4.08  tons  per  acre. 
He  also  says : 

"Among  from  40  to  50  forage  plants  kept  growing  on 
the  Kentucky  Experiment  Farm  for  a  number  of  years, 
tall  oatgrass  has  always,  winter  and  summer,  been  one 
of  the  finest  in  appearance,  In  the  matter  of  hardiness 


TALL  OATGRASS 


61 


Tall  Oatgrass   (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum). 


62  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

and  productiveness  it  has  no  equal  on  the  farm.  It 
stands  drouth  better  than  timothy.  It  has  not  been  af- 
fected by  the  severest  cold  weather  we  have  had  during 
the  past  six  years.  It  grows  rapidly  on  poor  soil.  When 
fully  grown  about  the  middle  of  June  it  is  often  5'  in 
height,  with  a  panicle  somewhat  like  that  of  oats,  and 
inclined  to  droop  a  little,  but  not  so  coarse.  After  flower- 
ing it  soon  becomes  rather  woody  and  should  on  this 
account  be  cut  promptly  before  the  panicles  mature.  Af- 
ter cutting,  a  new  growth  of  blades  appears,  that  might 
furnish  either  pasture  or  hay.  The  experience  of  Amer- 
ican farmers  who  have  tried  this  grass  is  in  its  favor,  but 
British  farmers  say  it  is  bitter  and  unfit  for  either  hay 
or  pasture.  It  is  at  least  worthy  of  trial  in  Kentucky." 
Johnson  Grass. — Johnson  grass  is  a  sorghum,  ,S.  hala- 
pense.  It  masquerades  under  a  good  many  names,  as 
Means'  grass,  Arabian  millet,  Egyptian  millet,  Syrian 
grass  and  others.  It  comes  from  the  Orient.  In  1835 
Gov.  Means  of  South  Carolina  obtained  seed  from  Tur- 
key. A  few  years  later  William  Johnson  of  Alabama 
began  praising  it  and  distributing  the  seed.  Had  he 
but  known  its  future  he  would  have  been  very  slow  to 
spread  its  seed.  It  is  a  coarse  grass,  with  thick  stems, 
usually  about  3'  to  6'  tall.  It  has  a  head  somewhat  like 
broom  corn,  though  much  smaller,  with  sorghum-like 
seeds.  The  rootstocks  are  large,  often  Y^'  in  diameter; 
creeping  and  branching,  they  have  a  way  of  ramifying 
all  through  the  soil  and  each  joint  can  produce  a  new 
plant.  It  is  a  terrific  weed  when  once  it  gets  into  a 
cultivated  field.  A  prodigious  amount  of  labor  may  fail 
to  exterminate  it  once  it  is  established.  At  the  same 


JOHNSON  GRASS 


63 


Johnson  Grass  (Sorghum  halapense), 


64  MEADOWS  AND   PASTURES 

time  it  makes  fairly  good  hay  when  cut  green.  It  should 
always  be  cut  for  hay  before  the  seed  forms;-  else  it  is 
almost  criminal  to  sell  it  or  move  it  about  the  country. 
But  there  are  places  where  Johnson  grass  is  profitable. 
It  thrives  in  the  dry  plains  of  Texas,  and  makes  much 
pasturage  and  hay  on  \vhich  cattle  are  fed.  It  has  a 
curious  need  of  being  plowed  up  now  and  then,  else  it 
becomes  sod-bound  and  the  roots  too  close  to  the  sur- 
face to  thrive.  When  this  occurs  it  is  only  necessary 
to  plow  the  land  and  harrow  it  well  as  though  one  were 
about  to  destroy  the  plants  entirely  and  presto !  there 
springs  up  a  new,  fresh  stand  which  is  soon  as  thick  as 
ever. 

In  order  to  keep  Johnson  grass  productive  one  must 
get  some  sort  of  legume  to  growing  with  it.  On  suitable 
lands  alfalfa  is  doubtless  the  best  legume  for  this  pur- 
pose. Sometimes  alfalfa  not  only  holds  its  own  but 
actually  causes  Johnson  grass  to  disappear ;  in  other  soils 
Johnson  grass  in  a  few  years  gets  the  upper  hand  of 
alfalfa. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  Johnson  grass  enriches  land. 
If  the  field  on  which  it  grows  is  kept  mowed  or  eaten 
off  by  animals  it  can  hardly  fail  rapidly  to  deplete  fer- 
tility, since  it  gathers  no  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  in 
fact  nothing  except  what  it  takes  from  the  soil.  Sugar 
planters  bitterly  deplore  the  presence  of  Johnson  grass 
in  their  fields,  and  one  has  declared  to  me  that  the  labor 
cf  cultivated  Ltigar  cane  was  fully  $20  per  acre  more  in 
fields  infested  with  it.  I  can  not,  therefore,  advise  its 
sowing  anywhere  that  cultivation  may  sometimes  be 
desired  and  yet  it  is  probably  the  very  best  hay  grass 


ERADICATING    JOHNSON    GRASS  65 

yet  found  for  our  southern  states.  To  tell  of  Johnson 
grass  and  not  tell  how  to  get  rid  of  it  would  be  to 
incur  the  dislike  of  most  of  my  southern  readers.  First 
let  me  advise  careful  buying  of  field  seeds,  especially  of 
alfalfa  seed,  which  is  sometimes  infested  with  seed  of 
this  grass.  Next  consider  its  habit  of  growth.  It  is  a 
plant  of  the  tropics;  it  can  not  endure  freezing;  any 
roots  turned  up  in  the  fall  so  that  they  freeze  will  be 
destroyed.  This  alone  will  destroy  Johnson  grass  in  Ohio, 
Illinois,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Tennessee  and  the  northern 
ends  of  all  the  Gulf  States.  The  fact  is,  farmers  in 
the  South  are  not  often  provided  with  suitable  plows 
for  combatting  Johnson  grass.  The  ordinary  one-mule 
plow  only  tickles  and  invigorates  it.  Spring-plowing 
does  not  much  hurt  it.  Each  joint  of  the  long,  creeping 
root-stocks-will  grow  if  left  in  the  ground.  Hogs,  by 
the  way,  thrive  on  these  succulent  root-stocks. 

Prof.  W.  J.  Spillman  has  made  a  careful  study  of 
Johnson  grass  and  its  extermination  and  declares  that 
it  is  conquerable.  He  says : 

"The  difficulty  of  dealing  with  this  weed  is  greatly  increased  by 
the  implements  used  for  tillage  on  many  southern  farms.  To  check 
the  grass  effectively  a  good  two-horse  turning  plow  is  absolutely 
necessary,  an  implement  not  found  on  many  small  farms.  In  plowing 
it  is  necessary  to  cut  and  turn  over  every  inch  of  the  land.  By 
doing  this  it  is  entirely  possible  to  plow  a  Johnson  grass  meadow  in 
spring,  harrow  out  the  rootstocks  and  make  a  good  cultivated 
crop  the  same  year;  but  it  requires  careful  work,  and  a  great  deal 
of  it,  to  do  so.  The  grass  may  be  entirely  eradicated  in  a  single 
season  if  the  farmer  can  spare  the  land  and  afford  the  necessary 
labor.  The  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  plow  the  land  with  a  turning- 
plow  in  the  fall,  selecting  a  time  when  the  soil  is  mellow.  Harrow 
out  as  many  rootstocks  as  possible  and  remove  them  from  the 


66  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

field.  Then  sow  some  winter  grain,  such  as  oats,  barley  or  rye. 
Wheat  is  too  late  in  maturing.  The  grain  should  be  cut  for  hay 
in  the  spring,  and  the  land  plowed  again  immediately  and  thoroughly 
harrowed,  as  in  the  fall  previous.  Then  every  time  the  most  forward 
bunches  of  grass  reach  4"  to  6"  in  height,  run  over  the  land  with 
a  heel-scrape  or  any  other  implement  that  shaves  off  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  To  be  effective  this  shaving  process  must  be  so  thorough 
that  every  sprig  of  grass  is  cut.  If  this  is  kept  up  till  October  every 
vestige  of  Johnson  grass  will  be  destroyed.  It  may  come  again 
from  seed  next  year,  but  the  seeding  plants  may  be  killed,  like  any 
other  weed,  by  thorough  cultivation.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
let  any  of  them  get  large  enough  to  send  out  rootstocks  before 
destroying  them.  Some  badly  infested  farms  have  been  freed  from 
this  pest  by  the  above  method.  The  usual  practice  is  to  take  one 
field  at  a  time  for  this  treatment,  taking  several  years  to  extend  the 
work  of  eradication  over  the  whole  farm.  With  a  rational  system 
of  crop  rotation,  and  the  thorough  working  of  the  soil  common 
in  the  north  of  England  and  in  many  parts  of  this  country,  Johnson 
grass  would  not  be  a  pest,  but  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  list  of  farm 
crops.  The  climate  of  the  entire  Johnson  grass  area  permits  at 
least  two  crops  a  year  to  be  grown  on  every  acre  of  land.  A  crop 
of  winter  grain,  hay  and  one  or  two  summer  crops  of  cow-pea  hay 
or  sorghum  hay  can  be  grown  on  the  worst  infested  land,  with  little 
or  no  interference  from  the  grass,  if  the  land  is  thoroughly  plowed 
and  harrowed  before  planting  each  crop.  Better  than  all,  however, 
on  land  adapted  to  it,  and  this  includes  nearly  all  the  worst  areas, 
alfalfa  can  be  sown  on  Johnson  grass  land  with  perfect  success. 
To  do  this  the  land  should  plowed  and  the  rootstocks  thoroughly 
harrowed  out  early  in  the  fall.  If,  after  this,  a  good  beating  rain 
comes  to  firm  the  soil,  all  the  better.  Then  sow  the  alfalfa,  at  the 
rate  of  20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  early  enough  in  the  fall  for  it  to 
get  a  good  start  before  cold  weather.  The  next  summer  cut  it 
promptly  every  time  it  gets  high  enough  to  make  a  fair  crop  of 
hay.  This  treatment  helps  the  alfalfa  and  greatly  discourages  the 
Johnson  grass.  As  alfalfa  makes  four  or  five  crops  of  hay  a  year 
in  the  South  (six  to  nine  in  some  places),  and  Johnson  grass  only 
three,  and  as  Johnson  grass  gradually  declines  in  yield  anyway,  so 
that  it  yields  very  little  three  or  four  years  after  the  last  plowing, 
the  alfalfa  will,  in  a  few  years,  be  practically  free  frcfni  the  grass. 
What  little  is  left  actually  improves  the  quality  of  the  alfalfa  hay." 


PARA   AND   GUINEA    GRASSES  67 

The  difficulty  in  eradicating  Johnson  grass  arises 
largely  from  the  inherent  quality  in  the  human  mind  to 
let  "pretty  well"  alone.  Thus  when  the  grass  is  fairly 
well  subdued  there  is  danger  that  the  owner  will  relax 
his  vigilance,  just  when  he  should  redouble  his  efforts. 
It  can  be  eradicated,  but  the  nearer  one  is  to  that  de- 
sired goal  the  more  intense  should  be  his  efforts.  Salt 
will  not  kill  Johnson  grass,  but  kerosene  oil  is  said  to 
do  so;  it  might  be  an  efficient  aid  when  once  the  grass 
was  reduced  to  a  small  number  of  plants. 

Para  grass  (Panicum  molle) ,  and  Guinea  grass  (Pani- 
cum maximum). — These  two  grasses  are  of  great  use 
in  Cuba  and  other  tropical  regions.  They  have  been 
introduced  in  a  small  way  into  Florida  and  southern 
Louisiana.  They  are  quite  unlike  in  their  manner  of 
growth.  Para  grass  likes  rich,  moist  or  even  wet  land. 
It  is  planted  from  slips  or  the  roots  are  obtained.  These, 
when  pushed  into  the  prepared  soil  during  the  dormant 
season,  take  root  and  send  out  long  runners  that  lie 
close  on  the  ground.  After  the  ground  is  well  covered 
with  these  leafy  runners,  upright  stems  appear.  Para 
grass  is  used  mostly  for  pasturage  and  makes  on  rich 
soil  an  astonishing  amount.  Guinea  grass,  according  to 
many  writers,  is  the  best  of  tropical  grasses.  Of  it  says 
Prof.  Frank  S.  Earle  of  the  Cuban  Department  of  Agri- 
culture: "It  is  the  best  pasture  and  hay  grass  in  the 
world.  It  is  usually  planted  by  slips.  The  para  grass 
is  rather  a  bad  weed  in  some  soils,  about  as  bad  as  John- 
son grass.  It  thrives  best  in  low,  half-swampy  places. 
It  yields  enormously  on  lands  that  would  not  be  fit  for 
anything  else." 


&  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Neither  of  these  grasses  will  yield  much  forage  on  poor 
soils,  even  in  Florida. 

CEREALS  AND  ANNUAL  GRASSES  FOR  HAY. 

There  are  situations  where  it  is  best  to  sow  some 
grass  that  wrill  make  a  crop  of  hay  soon  after  sowing. 
There  are  regions  where  summer  drouths  make  perennial 
meadows  impracticable,  and  there  are  emergencies  on 
most  farms  that  make  it  expedient  to  sow  some  seed  that 
will  quickly  return  to  the  farmer  a  crop  of  hay.  Quite 
a  wide  range  of  plants  can  be  used  for  such  purposes. 

Wheat  Hay. — In  California  winter  wheat  is  the  almost 
universal  hay,  besides  alfalfa.  It  is  not  so  much  sown 
for  hay  as  it  is  cut  from  the  boundaries  of  the  fields  to 
open  places  for  the  harvesters  that  follow  as  soon  as  the 
wheat  has  ripened  its  grain.  Cut  before  the  grain  has 
formed,  or  just  as  it  is  forming,  the  straw  is  full  of 
sweet  sap  and  the  whole  plant  is  palatable  and  nutritious. 
Horses  and  mules  work  well  on  wheat  hay,  which  is, 
indeed,  preferred  by  such  animals  to  alfalfa.  Barley  is 
used  in  the  same  manner.  In  eastern  America  rye  is 
sometimes  cut  for  hay.  In  northern  America  oats  and 
peas  sown  together  make  excellent  forage,  and  while 
commonly  fed  green  are  sometimes  cured  into  hay. 

Time  to  Cut  Cereals  for  Hay. — A  principle  involved 
in  choosing  the  time  to  cut  any  grain  for  hay  is  that 
at  blooming  time  the  plant  has  gathered  from  the  soil 
about  all  that  it  will  gather;  it  has  stored  in  its  sap 
nearly  all  the  nutrients  that  later  will  go  to  make  the 
grain.  After  bloom,  the  nutrients  are  gathered  into 
the  grain  and  the  stem  steadily  accumulates  wood  and 


CEREALS    FOR    HAY  69 

loses  its  nourishing  qualities,  while  the  grain  gains  in 
weight  and  perfection.  The  lesson  is  plain :  if  one  wishes 
grain  he  should  let  it  ripen;  if  he  wishes  hay  he  should 
cut  before  the  grain  forms,  after  bloom  and  while  the 
nutritious  sap  is  ail  through  the  structure  of  the  plant. 
Then  all  of  the  plant  will  be  eaten  and  none  wasted. 
Also  there  will  be  none  of  the  annoyance  of  rats  and 
mice  burrowing  through  the  mow  in  search  of  grain. 

Winter  Wheat  for  Hay. — Probably  one  of  the  smooth 
wheats  (not  bearded)  will  be  found  best  of  any  of  the 
common  cereals  for  hay.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
wheat  and  one  can  find  them  adapted  to  almost  all  soils 
and  situations.  In  testing  wheat,  oats  and  rye  for  forage 
in  Louisiana  on  rich  alluvial  buckshot  soil,  I  was  aston- 
ished to  find  how  much  superior  the  wheat  proved  to 
either  of  the  other  cereals  both  in  weight  of  yield  and 
palatability.  Rye,  a  vigorous  and  worthy  crop  in  north- 
ern situations,  proved  the  poorest  of  all. 

Winter  Wheat  and  Fetches  for  Forage. — Many  ex- 
periments in  Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Louisiana  have 
showrn  winter  wheat  and  winter  vetches  to  make  the  most 
and  best  forage  to  be  mown  off  in  early  spring  or  during 
the  winter  in  far  southern  latitudes  of  anything  yet  test- 
ed. Cereals  and  the  legumes,  furthermore,  balance  each 
other  very  well. 

CEREALS  FOR  HAY. 

Rye  Hay. — Rye  makes  as  poor  hay  as  one  could  de- 
sire. If  it  must  be  used  for  this  purpose  mow  it  as 
soon  as  it  begins  to  shoot,  not  waiting  for  it  to  head 
at  all. 


70  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Rye  as  Soiling  Crop. — For  soiling  rye  has  its  use, 
especially  in  regions  of  poor  soil  and  rigorous  climate. 
It  is  always  a  forage  deficient  in  protein,  and  its  chief 
good  is  as  a  filler  and  a  provider  of  succulence  in  rations. 

Beardless  Spring  Barley  as  Hay. — Beardless  spring 
barley  makes  an  exceedingly  good  nurse-crop  for  clover 
or  alfalfa.  Its  merits  are  that  it  does  not  usually  lodge, 
and  being  not  very  prolific  does  not  too  much  shade 
the  young  legumes.  It  is  best  cut  for  hay  just  before 
the  grain  forms,  since  it  thus  affords  its  maximum 
amount  of  feeding  value,  and,  getting  out  of  the  way, 
gives  the  alfalfa  or  clover  opportunity  to  grow. 

Rescue  Grass  (Bromus  unoiloides). — This  grass  is  al- 
lied to  the  cheat  grasses.  It  is  hardy,  makes  pretty  good 
winter  grazing  in  the  South,  and  has  been  considerably 
exploited.  I  do  not  see  that  it  is  any  better  than  wheat 
and  usually  seems  inferior,  though  the  seed  should  be 
less  expensive,  and  to  some  extent  it  will  reseed  itself. 
Seedsmen  oftentimes  substitute  cheat  seed  for  rescue 
and  thus  make  good  profit,  as  cheat  is  a  weed  seed 
that  is  found  in  large  amounts  in  wheat  and  separated 
by  millers.  Spillman  says  that  cheat  is  by  no  means 
as  good  a  grass  as  rescue  grass.  Unless  it  is  desired  that 
the  grass  shall  in  a  manner  perpetuate  itself  by  self- 
sowing,  I  should  choose  wheat  or  oats  rather  than  res- 
cue grass  for  the  South.  This  is  the  "Arctic  grass"  of 
some  seedsmen. 

THE    MILLETS. 

The  millets  are  of  a  very  ancient  and  honorable  fam- 
ily of  cultivated  plants.  Our  ancestors  found  them 
edible  and  began  their  cultivation — perhaps  as  early  as 


MILLETS  AS  DROUTH    CROPS  71 

they  did  wheat.  Spillman  says  there  are  four  great 
families  of  millets,  three  of  which  are  in  common  use 
and  have  been  used  as  food  for  man,  the  most  common 
being  the  so-called  German  millets,  Hungarian  grass 
and  the  like.  These  grasses  belong  to  the  botanical 
species  Chaetochloa  italica.  The  second  group  com- 
prises the  broomcorn  millets.  'Millions  of  men  live 
on  the  seeds  of  these  millets,  while  our  ancestors  cer- 
tainly in  Europe  ate  the  German  millets,  as  we  find  their 
seeds  in  the  old  lake  dwellings  and  kitchen  middings 
of  Europe.  The  third  group  comprises  the  Japanese 
millets  cultivated  extensively  in  parts  of  Japan  and  China 
as  food  for  man  and  beast.  The  fourth  is  Pearl  millet 
(Pennisetum  spicatum). 

Millets  Dry  Weather  Crops. — The  millets  seem  nearly 
all  of  them  to  be  adapted  to  conditions  of  relative  scarcity 
of  rainfall.  In  the  United  States  Spillman  has  shown 
that  millets  (German  millet,  Hungarian  grass  and  their 
relatives)  are  mostly  grown  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  both 
Dakotas,  northwest  Missouri,  somewhat  in  Iowa,  north- 
ern Illinois,  and  on  the  black  soils  of  Texas.  Millet 
comes  in  where  timothy  is  uncertain  and  forage  is  needed. 
As  it  is  sown  in  the  spring  the  land  can  have  good  cul- 
ture to  aid  it  in  holding  its  moisture  during  hot,  dry 
weather  following.  It  is  also  a  quick-growing  crop 
that  may  be  sown  as  late  as  June,  perhaps  on  land  de- 
voted previously  to  some  crop  that  failed.  It  is  often 
called  in  as  a  help  when  one  sees  a  hay  famine  im- 
pending, and  in  this  use  there  is  good.  For  a  compre- 
hensive account  of  the  millets  I  direct  the  reader  to 
Spillman's  "Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,"  and 


MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

to  Hunt's  "The  Forage  and  Fibre  Crops  of  America." 
They  do  not  properly  belong  in  my  scheme  of  meadows 
and  pastures  because  being  annual  plants  they  can  not 
be  used  in  any  plan  of  permanent  meadowland. 

Sowing  Millets. — I  may  say,  however,  that  the  millets 
should  not  be  sown  till  the  earth  is  warm  in  the  spring. 
Often  one  will  get  best  results  from  so\ving  in  June. 
The  millets  revel  in  hot  weather. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — A  bushel  of  millet  seed 
weighs  from  48  to  50  pounds.  From  i  to  4  pecks  of  seed 
are  sown  to  the  acre,  depending  on  the  soil.  With 
good  soil  and  a  good  seedbed  a  peck  of  seed  will  pro- 
duce more  forage  than  a  heavier  seeding.  If  grown  for 
the  seed  a  peck  to  the  acre  is  sufficiently  heavy  seeding. 
Under  favorable  conditions  3  to  4  tons  of  hay  or  20  to 
80  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are  secured. 

When  to  Cut  Millet. — The  time  to  cut  millet  hay 
is  when  in  bloom  and  before  the  seed  form.  Millet 
hay  sometimes  injuriously  affects  horses  fed  on  it  be- 
cause of  its  effect  on  the  kidneys.  When  cut  early 
enough  and  fed  in  moderation  it  seems  a  satisfactory 
forage  for  most  animals.  Spillman  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  somewhat  richer  in  protein  than  is 
timothy.  Millet  is  a  heavy  feeder  and  by  no  means 
enriches  land  on  which  it  is  grown.  It  is  so  rank  in 
its  growth,  and  shades  the  land  so  well,  that  it  smothers 
out  many  weeds.  It  is  said  to  destroy  even  Canada 
thistles  and  quack  grass,  though  such  reports  must  be 
taken  with  a  grain  of  allowance.  Doubtless  it  would 
set  these  pests  back  not  a  little  if  a  good  stand  were 
obtained  and  it  grew  over  them  and  shaded  them. 


CONCLUSIONS  I     GRASSES   FOR   HAY  73 

The  millets  are  not  at  all  adapted  to  use  as  nurse- 
crops  for  clovers  or  other  grasses.  It  has  been  my  ob- 
servation that  many  men  sow  millet  occasionally,  but 
few  care  for  the  crop  in  regular  use.  In  Ohio  I  have 
known  few  men  to  sow  millet  two  years  in  succession. 
Doubtless  the  fact  that  the  market  does  not  call  for 
millet  hay  has  considerable  influence. 

SUMMARY:  GRASSES  FOR  MEADOWS. 

Farm  practice  seems  to  be  about  abreast  with  good 
science  in  the  matter  of  grass  meadows.  Timothy  is 
the  almost  universal  meadow  grass  and  deserves  the 
place  wherever  there  is  enough  moisture,  lime,  fertility 
and  not  too  much  heat.  The  other  grasses  are  almost 
all  inferior  to  timothy  in  point  of  yield,  ease  of  estab- 
lishment and  general  adaptability  to  a  farm  scheme.  In 
dry  soils  north  of  the  Ohio  River  brome  grass  seems 
the  best  meadow  grass,  especially  desirable  for  the  Da- 
kotas,  Nebraska  and  farther  west.  There  is  danger  in 
sowing  brome  grass  that  one  may  get  seed  of  quack 
grass.  Timothy  seed  is  easily  distinguished  and  not 
much  adulterated.  Orchard  grass  is  a  better  grass  for 
pasture  than  for  hay.  Redtop  denotes  a  second-rate 
soil  or  worse.  Meadow  fescue  has  considerable  merit 
and  is  well  worth  putting  into  mixtures.  It  seems  es- 
pecially wrell  adapted  to  the  soils  and  climate  of  Kansas. 

After  30  years'  study  of  grasses  I  could  advise  a 
beginner  in  farming  whose  land  was  located  within  the 
cornbelt  no  better  than  this :  Drain  your  land,  lime  it 
and  feed  it.  Sow  timothy,  mix  with  it  if  you  choose 
some  meadow  fescue  and  brome  grass.  Sow  red  and 


74  MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

alsike  clover  with  it.  Feed  the  meadow  each  year.  Mow 
it  but  once — just  as  the  bloom  falls.  Pasture  lightly 
if  it  grows  up  rank  in  the  fall.  If  timothy  does  not 
thrive  on  your  soil  because  of  poverty  or  wetness,  take 
redtop.  If  you  wish  to  combine  mowing  with  pasturage 
take  orchard  grass.  If  you  are  growing  for  a  short 
term  of  years  you  may  mix  in  rye  grasses  if  you  like; 
they  are  being  steadily  discarded  in  England,  once  their 
chief  stronghold.  Timothy  will  do  the  trick  easiest 
for  you,  as  it  is  easiest  sown  and  established. 

To  the  man  in  the  Gulf  States  I  would  say :  You  may 
use  timothy  and  clover  also  if  you  have  rich  soil;  sown 
in  the  fall  they  will  give  you  at  least  one  good  hay 
crop  but  you  will  find  redtop  better  adapted  to  your 
climate  and  more  enduring.  Better  lime  your  soil  if  it 
needs  it  and  sow  alfalfa;  it  likes  hot  suns  arid  the 
grasses  do  not.  Do  not  sow  Johnson  grass  if  you  do 
not  have  it  aready,  but  if  you  have  it  sow  alfalfa  with 
it;  cut  always  before  seed  forms;  it  will  yield  you  a  lot 
of  good  hay — nearly  better  than  timothy. 

To  the  man  of  Oklahoma,  Texas,  the  dry  parts  of 
Kansas,  Nebraska  and  New  Mexico,  where  "dry  farm- 
ing" is  being  done :  Do  not  depend  much  on  perennial 
grasses;  they  do  not  root  deeply  enough.  You  must  till 
your  soil  each  year  in  order  to  hold  your  moisture; 
you  can  make  hay  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  sorghum  and 
corn.  Permanent  meadows  are  for  lands  with  ample 
rainfall.  Meadows  in  permanent  grass  waste  much 
moisture  through  evaporation  from  the  surface  soil.  They 
can  not  be  tilled  without  destroying  the  grasses  that  you 
wish  to  cherish. 


PASTURE  GRASSES  75 

And  yet  there  are  many  splendid  native  grasses  that 
root  deep.  Bluestem  (Ogropyron  repens)  is  one  of  our 
native  western  grasses,  better  than  timothy,  adapted  to 
dry  soils  in  the  Northwest.  So  of  the  great  bunch  grass 
of  Washington,  Oregon  and  Idaho  (Atnropyron  diver- 
gens)  ;  it  has  promise  for  dry  lands  but  nothing  that 
I  know  is  adapted  to  the  dry,  hot  Southwest  but  annual 
grasses,  as  wheat,  sorghum  and  the  Kaffir-corns. 

GRASSES  FOR  PASTURE. 

There  is  a  difference  in  the  requirements  of  pasture 
and  meadow.  Meadows  are  left  undisturbed  by  ani- 
mals; they  are  mown  off  once  or  twice  during  the  year 
and  then  left  to  grow  up  again.  Pastures  are  usually 
fed  off  nearly  constantly  all  during  the  growing  season, 
and  even  more  or  less  through  the  winter  season.  Some 
grasses  are  especially  adapted  to  being  so  fed  off:  others 
are  not.  Timothy,  easily  the  first  of  meadow  grasses, 
soon  disappears  under  close  pasturing.  Even  rank  John- 
son grass  succumbs  to  close  pasturing.  Little  sheep  fes- 
cue would  hardly  make  enough  mowing  to  be  gathered 
with  the  rake,  and  yet  it  yields  well  as  a  pasture  grass. 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  the  almost  universal  pasture  grass 
of  America,  is  a  poor  hay  grass,  yet  it  has  made  500 
pounds  of  beef  from  one  acre  in  Virginia.  A  good  pas- 
ture grass  is  not  injured  by  being  tread  upon  by  animals' 
hoofs.  It  thickens  itself  and  heals  over  scars,  grows  up 
cheerfully  when  eaten  down  and  yields  tender,  palatable 
nutritious  herbage.  In  America  it  is  common  to  con- 
sider a  pasture  a  permanent  thing.  Some  grasses  im- 
prove with  age,  with  the  accumulation  of  a  "sod,"  a 


76  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

sort  of  laboratory  where  nature  is  performing  mysteries. 

The- best  pastures  I  know  are  old  pastures.  In  Eng- 
land also  old  pastures  are  often  highly  esteemed,  yet 
there  is  also  a  custom  to  lay  down  grass  and  clovers  for 
a  few  years  only,  feeding  them  off  with  sheep  or  cat- 
tle. The  rye  grasses  and  fescues,  indeed  a  very  long 
list  of  grasses,  are  added  to  a  pasture  or  grazing  mix- 
ture. They  do  not  highly  esteem  our  all  but  universal 
Kentucky  bluegrass.  They  complain  that  it  soon  takes 
possession  of  the  land  and  displaces  coarser  and  larger- 
yielding  grasses. 

Kentucky  Bluegrass  (Poa  pratensis). 

Ever  smelt  Kentucky  grass, 

Or  heard  about  its  blueness? 
Seems  as  if  the  whole  blamed  world 

Was  bursting  out  with  newness. 

Skies  and  folks  alike  all  smiles, 

Gracious !  you  are  lucky 
If  you  spend  a  day  in  June 

Down  in  old  Kentucky. 

— Alfred  Monson. 

Of  no  grass  has  more  been  said  than  of  this.  It  is 
almost  everywhere  found  in  eastern  America  from  far 
north  in  Canada  to  the  Gulf  States.  In  many  places  it 
is  called  "June  grass";  in  Maryland  "green  grass."  Beal 
says  it  is  found  in  Australia,  Asia  and  Europe.  It  varies 
somewhat  according  to  its  locality.  Its  name  "blue- 
grass"  seems  to  me  somewhat  fanciful  for  assuredly  its 
sister-grass,  Canada  bluegrass,  is  more  blue.  I  think  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass  came  originally  from  Europe.  The  evi- 
dence to  me  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  was  not  one  of 


KEN? UCKY  BLUEGRASS 


77 


Kentucky  Bluegrass  (Poa  pratensis), 


78  MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

the  prairie  grasses  of  Illinois,  nor  seen  on  the  rich  open 
plains  of  Ohio,  until  white  men  came.  When  introduced 
into  prairie  regions  it  quite  often  crowds  out  the  native 
grasses  and  afterwards,  so  farmers  complain,  yields  less 
forage  during  dry  seasons  than  did  the  grasses  dis- 
placed. 

Give  bluegrass  credit  for  having  fought  its  own  way 
alone  and  unhelped.  Without  any  aid  of  man  it  came 
to  the  new  clearing;  it  grew  about  the  cabin  dooryard; 
it  carpeted  the  newly-cleared  pasture;  it  enriched  and 
beautified  the  roadside;  it  held  the  clayey  hillside  and 
animals  cropped  it  and  waxed  fat.  Not  corn,  not  wheat, 
not  tobacco,  but  bluegrass  became  the  chief  article  of 
export  from  the  Central  West,  going  out  disguised  as 
beef,  mutton  or  pork,  a  large  part  of  each  being  of  its 
making.  Of  the  millions  of  bluegrass  pastures  in  Amer- 
ica only  a  few  have  ever  had  seed  of  this  grass  sown 
upon  them. 

Bluegrass  varies  much  in  height.  I  have  seen  it  4' 
high  where  something  held  it  up  and  again  blooming 
when  less  than  a  foot  high  on  poor  soil  or  in  cold  climate. 
Its  fine,  feathery  top  does  not  last  long  but  dries  up  and 
is  not  then  relished  by  animals.  There  is  a  great  wealth 
of  blades,  however,  and  these  do  not  cease  to  push  up 
all  summer  and  long  after  most  things,  are  frozen  in  the 
fall.  The  decay  of  these  blades  and  the  creeping  roots 
make  the  sod  which  is  often  tough  enough  to  be  rolled 
into  a  roll  like  a  green  carpet. 

Bluegrass  spreads  rapidly  by  creeping  rootstocks  and 
thus  thickens  up  a  thin  stand.  Indeed  it  crowds  out  most 
other  grasses,  give  it  time.  Its  ability  to  displace  other 


THE  BLUEGRASS  REGIONS  79 

grasses  depends  much  on  the  soil  in  which  it  is  found. 
In  rich  limestone  soils  it  revels,  and  there  few  things 
are  able  to  keep  foothold  with  it.  Brome  grass  seems 
crowded  out  by  it,  and  even  that  dreaded  quack  grass. 
Orchard  grass  seems  to  hold  its  own  with  bluegrass  and 
even  to  spread  among  it.  Meadow  fescue  grows  well 
with  it.  When  the  soil  is  right,  Canada  bluegrass,  red- 
top  and  timothy  give  \vay  before  it.  All  the  wild  prairie 
grasses  yield  to  Kentucky  bluegrass  sooner  or  later  if 
found  growing  where  there  is  enough-  soil  moisture. 

Clovers  of  many  sorts  consort  well  with  bluegrass. 
Naturally  the  little  creeping  white  clover  is  found  with 
it.  Red  clover  and  mammoth  clover  grow  well  with 
;t.  Alsike  clover  is  found  with  it  on  certain  soils.  Al- 
falfa does  not  much  like  bluegrass  but  bluegrass  likes 
the  afalfa  well  and  crowds  in  wherever  it  is  sown.  With 
clovers  growing  in  it,  bluegrass  is  at  its  best,  makes  its 
best  yield  and  makes  its  fattest  lambs,  pigs  and  cattle. 

THE  BLUEGRASS  REGIONS  OF  AMERICA. 

There  is  a  distinct  relationship  between  the  carbonate 
of  lime  content  of  a  soil  and  its  ability  to  grow  good 
bluegrass.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  one  of  the  foundations 
of  soil  fertility — perhaps  the  one  thing  most  essential 
and  most  lacking  in  many  types  of  soil.  Where  car- 
bonate of  lime  abounds  in  the  soil  there  is  found  the 
most  bountiful  fertility.  There  is  found  a  soft  carpet 
of  bluegrass  over  every  bit  of  land  not  tilled  or  forested, 
often,  indeed,  carpeting  the  land  beneath  the  oaks.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  is  also  the  mother  of  the  clovers  and  they 
feed  the  bluegrass.  The  reader  interested  in  what  car- 


80  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

bonate  of  lime  can  do  for  the  soil  should  read  " Alfalfa 
Farming  in  America,"  where  a  rather  close  study  of  this 
important  subject  has  been  made. 

Wherever  limestone  is  found  bluegrass  is  seen.  It 
grows  also  all  over  the  northern  states,  but  it  does  not 
assume  great  -  importance  elsewhere  than  on  limestone. 
It  can  be  made  to  grow  on  many  soils  by  the  simple 
expedient  of  heavy  application  of  carbonate  of  lime.  On 
sands  in  Maryland  I  have  seen  good  bluegrass  along  the 
roadsides  where  oyster  shells  had  been  ground  up  by 
wagon  wheels.  In  Vermont  is  a  notable  bluegrass  re- 
gion :  some  spots  of  it  are  found  in  New  York  (it  grows 
sparingly  over  nearly  all  the  state)  ;  there  are  fine  lime- 
stone valleys  where  it  thrives  in  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land. One  reaches  Virginia  before  one  finds  bluegrass 
enthroned  as  queen  of  all  field  crops.  In  the  limestone 
regions,  mostly  in  a  belt  running  through  the  state  from 
the  Potomac  River  to  the  line  of  Tennessee,  one  sees 
splendid  pastures  fed  by  fine  cattle,  horses '  and  sheep. 
The  chief  interest  in  the  good  parts  of  these  bluegrass 
counties  is  in  -grazing,  and  the  livestock  fed  there  is  ex- 
ceedingly good.  There  is  practically  no  other  grass  than 
bluegrass  on  these  hills.  One  finds  splendid  examples 
in  Loudoun,  Clarke,  Shenandoah,  Augusta,  and  on  down 
through  Tazewell,  Russell  and  Smyth  counties.  I  have 
not  named  all  the  counties  having  fine  bluegrass  but 
enough  to  show  the  line  or  "pay  streak"  of  carbonate  of 
lime  that  makes  the  grass.  In  Russell  county  Hon. 
Henry  Stuart  has  grown  from  a  pasture  as  much  as  500 
pounds  of  beef  per  acre  and  had  considerable  fall  pas- 
ture left  for  calves  when  the  export  steers  were  gone. 


VIRGINIA   GRASS   LANDS 


81 


Virginia   Mountain   Pastures. 


82  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

Once  in  Burke' s  Garden  in  Tazewell  county  an  old 
man  told  me  of  the  first  coming  of  bluegrass  to  that 
mountain  vale.  His  father  was  a  slave-owner  who  grew 
corn,  and  the  new  grass  coming  unsown  troubled  him 
greatly.  He  had  the  slaves  dig  it  up  and  lay  it  on  the 
stumps  to  die,  dolefully  predicting  that  "this  grass  will 
some  day  run  us  out  of  the  country/'  Instead,  the  grass 
now  carpets  nearly  all  of  the  valley  and  sends  out  many 
fine  fat  cattle  and  lambs  each  year. 

When  the  Virginians  went  to  Kentucky  they  unwit- 
tingly took  the  grass  with  them  in  their  old  high  wagon 
boxes  as  forage  for  their  horses  or  as  bedding  for  them- 
selves. Thus  it  spread  along  the  wayside  and  in  a  few 
years  w^as  at  home  in  the  newr,  rich  soils  of  central  Ken- 
tucky. It  found  there  a  most  congenial  home.  That 
soil  is  rich  in  phosphorus  and  rich  in  lime.  Bluegrass 
grew  there  so  vigorously  that  it  seemed  like  a  new  plant 
and  took  the  name  of  the  state  in  which  it  grew  best. 
It  is  assuredly  true  that  bluegrass  partakes  considerably 
of  the  nature  of  the  soil  upon  which  it  grows.  This  is 
true  of  other  plants  as  well,  but  is  perhaps  more  espe- 
cially true  of  this  grass.  At  least  it  is  notable  that 
horses  grazed  on  bluegrass  in  Kentucky  on  the  soils  so 
rich  in  lime  and  phosphorus  have  a  splendid  bone  and 
a  wonderful  stamina  and  endurance.  They  have  also 
an  almost  inextinguishable  goodness  that  is  hard  to  de- 
fine or  explain.  It  is  as  true  of  the  men  and  women 
of  the  region,  so  the  underlying  rocks  and  soil  do  assur- 
edly influence  what  springs  out  of  them.  Ohio  may  on 
its  more  favored  acres  grow  more  bluegrass  than  Ken- 
tucky, but  it  seems  to  make  softer  horseflesh  and  poorer 


CATTLE  ON   BLUEGRASS 


83 


84  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

bone.  Illinois  grows  big,  juicy  bluegrass  but  it  does  not 
make  cattle  fat  as  does  the  grass  of  the  Virginia  moun- 
tains. 

Ohio  was  settled  soon  after  Kentucky,  and  bluegrass 
came  with  settlement.  The  natural  bluegrass  area  of 
Ohio  lies  mostly  west  of  the  Scioto  River,  though  there 
are  rich  hills  and  valleys  east  of  the  river  that  pro- 
duce the  grass  well.  The  advantages  of  bluegrass  are 
that  it  is  very  hardy,  is  green  early  in  spring  and  late 
in  fall  (it  is  not  quite  so  hardy  as  brome  grass,  though)  ; 
it  is  very  nutritious  and  palatable;  it  makes  much  milk, 
muscle  and  fat;  it  is  fairly  productive.  It  yields  nearly 
as  much  dry  matter  as  the  larger  grasses,  if  we  except 
the  meadow  grasses.  The  yield  is  variable,  depending 
on  moisture  of  the  soil  and  fertility.  Neglected  and 
closely  grazed,  bluegrass  pastures  are  often  yielding  com- 
paratively little.  On  Woodland  Farm  we  have  tested 
plots  with  and  without  manures ;  the  land  unfed  yielded 
at  first  cutting  6,400  pounds  of  green  forage  per  acre; 
the  manured  land,  20,000  pounds. 

This  was  the  spring  growth  only;  there  would  be 
about  two-thirds  as  much  more  to  come  from  the  land 
during  later  croppings.  The  grass  was  cut  about  July  i . 

Bluegrass  for  Lawns. — Wherever  the  soil  is  good  and 
moisture  can  be  had,  north  of  Tennessee  bluegrass  is 
the  best  lawn  grass.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  grass 
added  to  it  improves  it.  It  is  better  when  mixed  with 
white  clover.  If  the  soil  is  poor  sheep  fescue  and  other 
inferior  grasses  may  help  it  out.  Canada  bluegrass  will 
grow  on  poorer  soil  than  Kentucky  blue.  In  Tennessee 


SEEDING  BLUEGRASS  85 

if  the  lawn  can  have  partial  shade,  if  it  has  a  rich  soil 
supplied  with  enough  lime,  bluegrass  will  thrive.  South 
of  this  state  the  summer  suns  seem  too  hot  and  Bermuda 
grass  is  better. 

Disadvantages  of  Bluegrass. — It  spreads  rapidly  and 
crowds  out  timothy,  clovers  and  alfalfa.  It  is  a  little 
hard  in  wet  seasons  to  eradicate  from  plowed  fields, 
though  this  is  not  serious.  It  grows  in  the  moist  weather 
of  spring  and  crowds  out  better  drouth-resistant  grasses. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  western  prairie  states  and 
in  the  Willamette  Valley  of  Oregon,  where  it  is  com- 
plained that  "bluegrass  crowds  out  all  other  grasses  and 
then  dies  itself  of  drouth." 

Seeding  Bluegrass. — Bluegrass  seed  is  small ;  there  are 
about  some  2,200,000  seeds  in  a  pound,  yet  one  cannot 
bank  on  more  than  a  very  small  percentage  of  them  germi- 
nating owing  to  the  difficulty  in  sowing  them  to  a  proper 
depth,  having  sufficient  moisture  and  other  favorable  con- 
ditions. Hunt  says  that  when  40  pounds  are  sown  on 
one  acre  it  puts  2,000  seeds  to  the  square  foot.  I  think 
that  bluegrass  will  lie  dormant  in  the  soil  for  some  time, 
as  it  often  appears  almost  spontaneously  in  a  meadow  of 
timothy  or  alfalfa.  One  can  not  establish  bluegrass  ex- 
cept very  early  in  spring  or  during  cool,  moist  weather 
of  fall.  The  seed  does  not  germinate  unless  during  some 
part  of  the  day  the  temperature  drops  to  40°.  It  is 
cheaper  and  easier  to  establish  bluegrass  by  sowing  it 
with  other  grasses.  If  the  grass  is  not  already  found 
growing  wild  in  that  neighborhood  it  is  probably  of  no 
use  to  sow  it  at  all  until  something  has  been  done  to 


86  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

change  the  soil  type.  However,  if  the  climate  is  all 
right  the  soil  may  be  made  right.  Heavy  liming,  prefer- 
ably with  ground  and  unburned  limestone  (carbonate  of 
lime),  then  manuring,  are  all  that  bluegrass  requires  to 
make  it  succeeed.  In  Virginia  it  is  a  custom  to  turn 
under  a  heavy  crop  of  cowpeas  before  seeding  to  blue- 
grass.  The  more  nitrogen  in  the  soil  the  better  for  this 
crop ;  it  revels  too  in  humus.  It  is  not  a  poor-soil  grass. 

One  should  prepare  a  fine,  firm  seedbed  for  bluegrass. 
He  can  hardly  harrow  and  firm  his  land  too  well.  He 
may  sow  in  September  with  fall  wheat  or  barley.  This 
mixture  will  give  good  results  (sooner  or  later  the  blue- 
grass  will  have  almost  complete  possession)  :  Timothy, 
15  pounds;  Kentucky  bluegrass,  10;  meadow  fescue,  5; 
red  clover,  7,  or  alsike  clover,  6  pounds  or,  better,  mix 
them  together  and  sow  8  pounds,  little  white  clover,  2 
pounds.  Clovers  are  not  well  sown  in  the  fall ;  this  mix- 
ture can  be  sown  early  in  April  or  in  late  March  if  the 
ground  can  be  gotten  ready.  Or  the  grasses  may  be  sown 
in  September  with  wheat,  a  very  thin  seeding,  or  barley 
or  even  rye,  so  it  is  sown  very  thin ;  rye  makes  too  many 
leaves  to  be  a  first-rate  nurse-crop  for  small  grasses,  and 
the  clovers  added  in  the  spring.  I  really  prefer  the 
spring-sowing,  as  then  the  conditions  can  all  be  con- 
trolled nicely.  Late  spring  seeding  is  useless.  Timothy 
is  the  first  grass  to  appear  but  sooner  or  later  the  blue- 
grass  will  crowd  that  out. 

Mixture  with  Brome  Grass. — Really  I  should  prefer 
the  brome  grass  mixture  to  that  with  timothy.  Brome 
grass  is  as  easily  set  as  timothy,  so  one  gets  good  seed, 


PREPARING  TO  SEED  BLUEGRASS  87 

and  once  it  is  set  it  makes  far  better  pasture  than  tim- 
othy, more  and  better  pasture.  Indeed,  it  is  possible  that 
it  may  make  better  pasture  than  the  bluegrass  itself ;  that 
is  a  point  yet  to  be  determined.  In  time  on  bluegrass 
soil  the  brome  -will  disappear  almost  completely,  this 
because  the  animals  eat  it  soonest  and  because  the  blue- 
grass  though  a  smaller  grass  has  a. way  of  crowding  in 
very  closely,  so  that  even  the  vigorous  brome  grass  is 
outdone.  In  any  event,  in  sowing  a  mixture  with  brome 
grass  one  is  assured  of  good  pasturage  almost  from 
the  outset.  The  one  objection  to  the  mixture  is  that 
sometimes  one  buys  seed  of  quack  grass  with  brome  grass, 
but  this  is  no  evil  if  one  is  to  devote  the  field  to  permanent 
pasture.  In  truth,  quack  grass  (Agropyrum  repens)  is 
one  of  the  very  best  grasses  for  pasture.  Nor  is  it  very 
hard  to  conquer  except  in  northern  and  ultra-moist  lo- 
calities. I  do  not  find  it  a  particularly  troublesome  weed 
in  central  Ohio,  while  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  New 
York  farmers  dread  it  exceedingly. 

Coming  now  to  seeding  bluegrass  with  brome  grass,  I 
suggest  early  spring  as  the  best  time.  The  land  is  well 
to  be  plowed  during  winter  or  else  disked  up  with  no 
plowing  at  all.  Manure  will  help;  use  it  as  liberally 
as  you  can.  I  should  sow  then  20  pounds  of  bluegrass, 
10  pounds  of  brome  grass  and  a  mixture  of  clovers  ac- 
cording to  the  soil.  Sow  with  it  also  5  pounds  of  tim- 
othy if  you  like;  it  will  help  thicken  the  sod  at  first.  Do 
not  mix  orchard  grass  with  this  seed  as  it  does  not  give 
brome  grass  a  fair  show ;  animals  relish  the  brome  grass 
too  well  to  eat  orchard  grass  while  it  is  to  be  had. 


88  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Methods  of  Sowing  the  Seed. — Having  the  fine,  firm 
seedbed  I  suggest  drilling  into  it  one  bushel  to  the  acre 
of  beardless  spring  barley,  afterward  sowing  the  grass 
mixture  by  hand.  To  cover  the  seed  sufficiently  a  brush 
harrow  is  good.  One  can  readily  make  this  by  fastening 
small,  stiff,  wiry  branches  to  a  brace,  or  even  drag  brush 
over  the  field — anything  that  will  not  dig  deep  or  cover 
seed  deep.  Mind  it  is  done  early  in  spring.  Observe 
afterward  how  much  finer  a  stand  you  have  where  you 
have  applied  the  most  manure.  If  no  manure  is  avail- 
able and  one  wishes  to  stimulate  the  young  grasses  one 
may  apply  before  sowing  the  seed  commercial  fertilizers. 
Bonemeal  will  do  wonders — say  400  pounds  to  the  acre, 
or  the  same  amount  and  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
In  truth,  the  use  of  bonemeal  or  phosphatic  fertilizers  of 
some  sort  has  been  well  proved  to  be  a  first-rate  agricul- 
tural practice  when  establishing  grasses. 

Sowing  Blue  grass  with  Alfalfa. — If  I  wished  to  estab- 
lish the  very  best  possible  bluegrass  I  would  forget  the 
bluegrass  and  prepare  the  land  exactly  right  for  alfalfa. 
Then  when  the  alfalfa  has  been  sown  and  established  I 
would  know  that  the  bluegrass  would  come  in  tremendous 
vigor,  even  if  no  seed  were  sown  at  all.  Naturally  it 
would  come  in  better  when  seed  was  sown,  say  15  pounds 
of  alfalfa,  and  at  the  same  time  in  early  April  20 
pounds  more  or  less  of  bluegrass.  In  England  the  best 
farmers  have  learned  that  there  is  nothing  else  so  good 
a  preparation  for  grass  as  alfalfa. 

Improving  Bluegrass  by  Sowing  Alfalfa. — Similarly, 
it  is  a  great  scheme  to  sow  alfalfa  on  an  old  bluegrass 


SOWING    FERTILIZER    WITH    SEED  89 

sod.  One  first  drains  the  wet  places  in  the  pasture,  plows 
the  land  in  early  spring,  disks  and  harrows  it  and  sows 
to  alfalfa  with  a  good  dressing  of  fertilizer.  It  takes  well 
on  such  a  seedbed.  In  two  years  there  is  a  splendid  mix- 
ture of  alfalfa  and  bluegrass  and  in  four  years  the  heaviest 
of  bluegrass  and  not  much  alfalfa  left. 

Example  of  Successful  Seeding. — In  1900  we  bought 
a  clay  hill  field  above  our  own  land.  It  had  not  been  in 
grass  for  half  a  century.  It  was  beginning  to  wash  and 
gully  badly  and  the  clay  was  covering  our  better  kept 
soil  below.  We  had  little  expectation  of  profit  from  this 
field  for  many  years,  believing  that  regeneration  would 
be  slow.  There  was  no  available  manure  for  it.  We 
therefore  bought  commercial  fertilizers,  mixing  them  our- 
selves. Acid  phosphate  and  tankage  were  the  ingredients, 
the  tankage  being  slaughter-house  waste,  dried  and 
ground,  the  acid  phosphate  the  bones  of  pre-historic  ani- 
mal life,  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  to  make  it  dissolve 
in  the  soil  and  available  to  plants.  We  disked  the  field 
very  early  in  spring  and  as  deep  as  we  could,  then  drilled 
in  about  300  pounds  per  acre  of  this  fertilizer.  We  sowed 
two  bushels  of  barley  per  acre  and  right  behind  the  drill 
a  mixture  of  grass  seeds ;  there  were  brome  grass,  orchard 
grass,  timothy,  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  white  clover. 
After  sowing  the  seed  we  rolled  it  with  a  2,2OO-pound 
roller,  bringing  it  down  to  a  firm  condition,  so  that 
the  moisture  would. come  clear  to  the  surface.  It  proved 
to  be  a  dry  summer.  When  the  barley  grew  up  about 
1 8"  we  turned  in  sheep  which  ate  it  down;  then  we  took 
them  off,  Their  tiny  feet  yet  further  firmed  the  soil 


90  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Later  in  the  season  they  were  turned  in  again  for  a 
few  weeks — not  long  enough  to  eat  the  young  grass  close. 
In  the  fall  cockleburs  came  thick  with  other  weeds.  We 
put  the  mower  over  the  field.  Stock  was  kept  off  in  the 
winter  and  at  wet  times,  as  there  was  only  the  young 
grass  and  no  sod  as  yet.  In  the  spring  of  1902  we  put 
the  manure  spreader  over  the  entire  field.  The  grass 
came  on  well  and  thickened  up  wonderfully.  That  old 
scarred  hillside  became  a  mass  of  thick  grass  and  white 
clover.  It  pastured  a  great  deal  of  stock — sheep,  cattle 
and  colts.  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  yielded  us  at  least  $5 
per  acre.  And  each  year  since  it  has  done  better,  for  the 
grass  is  now  firmly  rooted.  The  bluegrass  is  gradually 
rooting  cut  most  of  the  other  grasses.  White  clover  has 
been  luxuriant  over  all  the  land.  That  is  because 
of  the  acid  phosphate  which  we  applied.  Clover  has 
also  stored  the  soil  with  nitrogen,  which  the  grasses  take 
up  and  use.  Men  seldom  sow  white  clover  because  they 
say  it  will  come  in  of  itself.  That  is  true,  but  it  does 
not  pay  to  wait ;  better  sow  the  seed  and  get  immediately 
what  would  take  years  to  accomplish  in  nature's  leisurely 
process  of  seed-growing  and  distribution.  It  does  not 
pay  to  allow  nature  to  do  one's  farming. 

I  write  now  in  July,  1910.  The  foregoing  account 
of  the  old  field  was  written  seven  years  ago.  That  field 
has  continued  to  give  us  great  profit  and  has  taught  us 
some  lessons.  For  one  thing,  we  now  know  better  than 
to  mix  brome  grass  with  orchard  grass.  There  is  now 
little  indeed  of  the  brome  grass  left ;  it  is  mainly  a  field 
of  orchard  grass  and  bluegrass.  It  is  not  well  to  mix 


MAXIMUM    BLUEGRASS    RETURNS  91 

orchard  grass  and  bluegrass.  Each  should  be  in  separate 
fields. 

Mixing  Orchard  Grass  with  Bluegrass. — The  result 
has  been  that  animals  like  the  bluegrass  so  much  better 
than  they  do  the  orchard  grass  that  the  bluegrass  is  kept 
grazed  too  close  and  the  orchard  grass  let  grow  too  rank 
and  tall.  Nevertheless,  the  bluegrass  is  steadily  encroach- 
ing on  its  competitor.  Orchard  grass  is  a  tremendously 
good  grass,  but  sow  it  in  a  field  by  itself  where  it  will 
be  fenced  so  that  animals  must  eat  it  when  they  are 
turned  to  it. 

Securing  a  Maximum  of  Bluegrass. — Not  many  men 
understand  how  to  manage  a  bluegrass  pasture ;  in  truth, 
they  seldom  give  it  any  thought  at  all.  It  is  assumed  that 
pastures'  should  care  for  themselves  and  be  always  cheer- 
ful carriers  of  all  the  animals  that  can  be  piled  on  them. 
The  following  principles  of  good  management  the  author 
has  observed:  Feed  animals  on  the  sod  in  winter  when 
it  is  not  wet  enough  to  tramp  into  mire.  Use  the  manure 
spreader  to  cover  thinly  the  poorer  spots  in  the  field. 
Keep  animals  religiously  off  in  early  spring ;  let  the  grass 
not  only  start  but  grow  till  there  is  a  good,  rich,  sweet 
bite.  In  latitude  40°  May  10  is  early  enough  to  turn  on 
bluegrass  pasture.  This  one  feature  is  of  great  im- 
portance— more  than  is  often  realized.  Grasses  are  half- 
killed  by  being  gnawed  to  the  very  earth  in  spring  when 
they  are  seeking  to  re-establish  themselves  after  a  long, 
cruel  winter.  The  carrying  capacity  of  a  pasture  may 
be  nearly  doubled  by  observing  this  rule,  though  it  re- 
quires good  management  to  accomplish  it. 


92  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Export  Cattle  on  Bluegrass. — "Have  enough  grass  so 
that  the  cattle  can  never  eat  more  than  two-thirds  of  it; 
have  enough  grass  for  20  and  put  on  it  15;  let  the  grass 
cover  the  pasture  so  that  it  shades  it  and  prevents  the 
land  drying  out  in  summer.  If  you  find  you  have  too 
much  grass  when  the  cattle  are  gone  fat  in  the  fall  you 
will  be  able  to  feed  it  off  during  November  and  December 
with  younger  cattle.  Enough  grass  for  three  and  two 
eating  it  will  make  export  cattle."  This  is  the  advice  of 
one  of  America's  most  successful  cattlemen  who  owns 
thousands  of  acres  of  mountain  pastures  in  Virginia.  In- 
deed, the  one  item  of  leaving  the  grass  long  so  that  it 
will  mulch  the  soil  and  keep  it  moist  is  worth  a  great 
deal,  though  grass  too  long  is  not  relished  by  animals 
as  is  shorter,  sweeter,  fresher  blades.  From  my  own 
observation,  I  urge  the  use  of  the  manure  spreader  on 
bluegrass  pastures,  the  use  of  phosphorus,  of  clover  seeds 
when  needed,  of  keeping  animals  off  till  pastures  can 
start  in  spring. 

How  Bluegrass  Came  to  Ohio. — The  settler  came  with 
much  toil  and  trouble  into  the  woods  of  Ohio.  He  chose 
a  dry  little  hill  in  the  woods  for  his  homesite.  Below  the 
house  there  bubbled  up  a  spring.  After  the  cabin  walls 
of  log  were  reared  and  roofed  the  spring  was  dug  out 
and  walled  with  stone.  Then  clearing  was  begun.  The 
first  crop  on  the  fresh-cleared  and  burned  land  was  wheat 
or  corn..  About  the  sole  crops  undertaken  were  wheat, 
corn,  flax,  and  buckwheat.  Hay  was  cut  from  the 
marshes  from  native  wild  grasses.  Cows  were  turned 
outside  the  clearings  to  browse  in  the  woocte.  Each  little 


EXPORT  STEERS  ON   BLUEGRASS 


93 


94  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

herd  had  its  bell-cow  which  signalled  constantly  the 
whereabouts  of  the  herd  to  the  boy  whose  mission  it  was 
to  bring  them  home  to  be  milked.  Sometimes  the  boy 
got  lost  in  the  woods  while  hunting  cows.  One  nearly 
grown  young  man  who  lacked  woodcraft  was  lost  several 
times  and  finally  his  father  gave  him  a  compass  with  in- 
structions that  if  he  found  the  cows  they  would  surely 
lead  him  home ;  if  he  did  not  find  them  the  compass  would 
tell  him  the  direction.  Yet  he  was  again  lost.  Search- 
ing parties  found  the  trail  of  the  boy  and  cows,  going 
the  wrong  direction,  then  of  the  boy  alone,  he  having 
abandoned  the  cows.  When  they  overtook  him  he  was 
miles  in  the  wilderness.  He  explained  that  "the  dumb 
cows  would  not  go  in  the  right  direction  without  being 
driven,"  then  he  got  tired  of  driving  them  and  they  were 
contrary  and  he  left  them.  "Later  the  compass  itself 
got  contrary  and  pointed  east  when  it  should  point  north." 
Those  cows  did  not  find  much  grass.  There  was  some 
woods  grass,  for  the  trees  had  little  undergrowth  beneath 
them.  There  were  old  clearings  made  by  fire  and  Indians 
along  the  streams  and  here  was  wild  grass.  It  seems 
there  was  no  bluegrass.  This  first  sprung  up  about  the 
camp-fires  of  emigrants  from  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  It 
spread  slowly  at  first,  then  rapidly  and  occupied  the 
roadsides,  the  settlers'  dooryards,  the  fence  corners,  grow- 
ing in  the  woods  wherever  the  sun  shone.  It  grew  espe- 
cially strong  in  southwestern  Ohio,  in  the  land  west  of 
the  Scioto  and  as  far  north  as  Hardin  county.  It  even- 
tually overspread  nearly  the  whole  state.  Pickaway,  Ross. 
Fayette,  Madison,  Butler,  Warren,"  Montgomery,  Miami, 


GRAZING    IN     FOREIGN    LANDS 


95 


96  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

Greene,  Clark,  Champaign  and  a  few  other  counties  grew 
it  especially  strong  and  vigorous.  Timothy  grass  was 
introduced  and  sown  for  meadow.  Blue  grass  established 
itself  in  these  meadows  and  crowded  out  the  timothy. 
The  national  road  was  builded  and  communication  with 
the  East  established  more  easily  than  before  and  cattle 
began  to  be  a  prime  source  of  wealth.  In  the  early  '305 
men  began  learning  that  there  was  as  much  profit  in 
fencing  pastures  and  letting  cattle  graze  the  unsown  blue- 
grass  as  in  anything.  Later  it  became  the  most  profitable 
industry  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state.  Hogs 
were  always  grown  in  numbers  and  this  industry  was 
most  important,  but  cattle  could  travel  afoot  to  Baltimore 
or  Philadelphia. 

In  Pickaway,  Madison,  Clark,  Greene  and  Champaign 
counties  there  grew  immense  estates,  from  600  to  4,000 
acres  in  extent.  The  timber  was  bur  or  white  oak,  black 
walnut,  elm,  wild  cherry  and  ash.  It  did  not  stand  very 
thick.  There  grew  up  after  settlement  thickets  of  hazel- 
nut.  These  the  cattlemen  grubbed  out  and  the  bluegrass 
took  possession  of  the  ground  beneath  the  trees.  Im- 
mense pastures  set  with  trees  like  parks  of  England  were 
grazed  by  cattle  that  fattened  mostly  on  the  grass.  Charles 
Phellis  had  one  pasture  of  this  nature  of  500  acres  as 
late  as  20  years  ago.  White  clover  came  with  the  blue- 
grass.  Neither  was  ever  sown,  so  far  as  I  can  learn. 
The  cattle  were  sold  at  four  or  five  years,  sometimes  as 
young  as  three  years.  They  were  mostly  grown  from 
cows  kept  by  the  settlers  on  the  hills,  New  England  Yan- 
kees. Many  of  these  hill  farmers  were  content  with  small 


BLUEGRASS  ON    LIMESTONE  97 

farms  of  100  to  200  acres,  milking  cows  and  making 
cheese,  raising  calves  and  pigs,  selling  the  calves  in  the 
fall  to  the  big  farmers  of  the  "plains  country."  The 
hill  farmer  pitied  the  plains  farmer,  who  was  stuck  down 
in  mud  and  miasma,  suffering  plagues  of  chills  and  fever, 
mosquitoes,  green-headed  flies  and  rattle-snakes. 

The  long-headed,  ambitious  young  men  went  to  the 
plains  for  all  that.  Some  of  them  walked  there.  They 
were  men  of  mighty  muscle  and  brain.  They  could  do 
anything  that  men  needed  to  do  in  that  land  from  break- 
ing oxen  to  hewing  out  timbers  to  roof  a  home.  These 
men  worked  hard  and  lived  long.  Their  sons,  born  in 
prosperous  times,  worked  very  little.  Their  grandsons 
have  taken  two  ways  of  life — part  of  them  have  deserted 
the  soil  altogether,  others  have  taken  hold  with  about 
as  much  energy  as  their  grandfathers  had  and  are  re- 
conquering the  soil  and  learning  to  make  two  blades 
of  grass  grow  where  but  one  grew  in  the  palmiest  days 
of  their  grandsires.  It  is  a  land  resting  now  on  a  foun- 
dation of  drain  tiles.  Not  a  farm  but  has  miles  of  them. 
Woodland  Farm  has  as  much  as  16  miles  of  them  just 
at  the  edge  of  the  plains  country.  It  is  a  land  threaded 
now  with  stone  roads.  It  is  a  land  of  homes,  of  old 
trees,  of  memories  that  awaken  pride,  a  land  of  beauty 
and  chivalry.  They  say  the  fairest  women  out  of  Ken- 
tucky are  in  that  land.  It  is  a  land  of  limestone  and 
sturdy-legged  boys,  .and  of  girls  with  the  blush  of  the 
rose  in  their  cheeks  and  the  glint  of  the  sun  in  their  hair. 

The  methods  of  growing  and  fattening  cattle  in  those 
early  days  were  delightfully  simple.  Calves  did  not  fare 


98  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

very  sumptuously  the  first  winter.     They  got  some  nub- 
bins of  corn  from  the  best  feeders'  hands.    The  hay  was 
wild  grass  later  intermixed  with  bluegrass  and  corn  sto- 
ver.   Corn  was  all  cut  up  into  shocks  of  144  or  256  hills. 
It  was  fed  on  the  ground  in  the  fields  in  the  shelter  of 
the  timber.     The  second  summer  of  the  steer's  life  he 
was  on  bluegrass.     He  got  round  and  sleek  there.     He 
had  salt  and  good  water  and  no  more.     The  second  win- 
ter of  the  steer's  life  was  like  the  first  except  he  might 
not  get  any  nubbins  of  corn  at  all  or  he  might  get  a  por- 
tion of  shock  corn.     He  generally  got  rather  thin  before 
spring  on  corn  stover,  which  was  weatherbeaten  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March.     But  he  came  to  grass  with  a  good 
appetite.     He  was  now  two  years  old  and  something  be- 
gan to  be  expected  of  him.     He  might  grow  fat  on  grass 
alone  or  he  might  be  fed  green  corn  as  soon  as  it  ripened, 
and  this  be  continued  until  some  time  in  December,  or 
he  might  be  fed  shock  corn  all  winter  and  go  to  market 
when  he  was  three  years  old.     Some  that  did  not  look 
ready  to  feed  would  be  roughed  through  the  third  winter. 
After  the  Short-horn  blood  came  in,  the  quality  of  the 
cattle  and  their  early-maturing  qualities  were  greatly  im- 
proved.    In  the  '505  there  .were  very  good  cattle  leaving 
Ohio.     In  the  '6os  my  memory  begins  and  some  mag- 
nificent cattle  were  fed  in  my  country.    They  were  larger, 
rougher,  fatter  than  cattle  now,  as  I  remember  it.    They 
were  far  heavier.     In  the  '705  cattle  were  marketed  at 
an  earlier  age  than  had  been  customary  and  seldom  were 
they  more  than  three  years  old  when  shipped.    The  rail- 
way began  to  supersede  the  drive  in  the  '505, 


CONCLUSIONS  ABOUT  BLUEGRASS  99 

What  of  the  number  of  cattle  fed  then  and  now?  It 
is  mere  guess-work  but  I  think  there  are  double  the  num- 
ber fed  now.  There  are  more  men  at  it  now.  There  is 
little  forest  left.  Cattle  are  no  longer  grown  on  the  farms 
to  any  great  extent;  they  come  to  be  filled  up,  fattened 
and  to  go  on.  The  land  produces  double  what  it  ever 
did  despite  the  roseate  visions  of  eyes  turned  back- 
ward. We  are  better  farmers  and  better  feeders,  too. 
We  are  not  the  mighty  men  of  muscle  our  sires  were,  nor 
are  we  so  saving  and  economical  as  they.  We  are  making 
more  money  but  we  are  not  building  fortunes  as  they  did, 
nor  can  we  so  readily  as  they  did.  They  were  in  a  new, 
glorious  land,  blossoming  with  hopes. 

SUMMARY  OF  KENTUCKY  BLUEGRASS. 

Bluegrass  is  the  most  universal  of  grasses,  the  best  for 
lawns  on  suitable  soils  not  too  far  south,  the  best  for 
roadsides  and  certainly  one  of  the  best  for  pastures. 
Bluegrass  loves  a  rich  soil  with  enough  carbonate  of 
lime  in  it  and  sufficient  phosphorus  and  nitrogen.  It  is 
essentially  a  grass  of  limestone  soils.  It  affords  much 
herbage  of  unusually  high  nutrition.  Seemingly  its  one 
rival  as  a  pasture  grass  on  good  soils  is  brome  grass 
(Bromiis  inermis).  Bluegrass  pays  well  for  being  fed 
with  manure  and  fertilizers.  It  grows  well  with  clovers, 
and  they  strengthen  it.  Bluegrass  creeps  into  alfalfa 
meadows  and  the  result  is  strong,  unusually  luxuriant 
bluegrass,  though  the  alfalfa  will  be  weakened.  It  is 
best  sown  with  a  mixture  of  coarser  grasses,  such  as 
timothy,  meadow  fescue  and  brome  grass,  which  it  later 


100  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

supplants.  It  does  not  grow  well  with  orchard  grass 
since  animals  eat  the  bluegrass  too  greedily,  leaving  the 
orchard  grass  untouched.  To  get  the  most  possible  out 
of  it  do  not  turn  animals  on  the  pasture  before  the  grass 
is  strong  and  affording  a  full  bite,  and  do  not  during 
hot  weather  graze  it  down  to  the  bare  earth.  Blue- 
grass  finds  summer  heats  and  drouth  its  worst  enemies. 
It  enriches  soils  on  which  it  grows  by  accumulating  a  sod 
rich  in  nitrogen. 

Kentucky  bluegrass  varies  in  worth  according  to  the 
soil  on  which  it  growrs.  One  can  hardly  get  the  maximum 
yield  from  his  soil  sown  to  bluegrass  because  it  is  rather 
a  shallow  feeder  and  dries  out  the  soil  rapidly.  Never- 
theless, as  it  needs  no  cultivation,  enriches  land  and  prop  - 
erly  managed  affords  much  excellent  grazing  that  makes 
the  highest  quality  of  animal  life,  one  should  reflect  well 
before  he  plows  up  a  bluegrass  pasture,  and  should  con- 
sider whether  he  is  not  seriously  at  fault  in  not  estab- 
lishing a  new  one.  It  pays  as  well  to  manure  a  blue- 
grass  sod  as  any  other  land  on  the  farm.  There  is 
no  leaching  away  of  fertility  put  on  bluegrass. 

Canada  -Bluegrass  (Poa  compressa). — It  sometimes 
seems  to  me  that  this  grass  should  really  bear  the  name 
"bluegrass,"  as  it  is  of  a  dark,  bluish  color,  much  more  of 
a  blue  than  the  common  Kentucky  bluegrass.  It  has 
many  common  names,  wire  grass,  Virginia  bluegrass  and 
flat-stemmed  bluegrass.  It  is  a  shorter,  more  slender 
grass  than  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  more  nearly  ever- 
green. Its  stems  do  not  dry  up  as  do  those  of  blue- 
grass,  but  remain  green  for  a  considerable  time.  It  is 


CANADA  BLUEGRASS 


101 


Canada  Bluerrass   (Poa  Compressa). 


102  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

rather  hard  and  somewhat  tough,  but  it  is  sweet  and 
very  nutritious.  Animals  like  it  well  and  cattle  fatten 
on  it.  'Horses  especially  thrive  on  Canada  bluegrass  and 
when  it  is  sometimes  made  into  hay,  horsemen  are  glad 
to  have  a  chance  to  buy  it. 

It  is  right  curious  how  widely  distributed  is  Canada 
bluegrass.  I  have  seen  it  in  northern  Idaho.  It  is  said 
that  as  early  as  1823  it  was  found  growing  wild  along 
the  upper  Saskatchewan  in  Canada.  It  is  everywhere 
in  the  eastern  states  of  America  and  as  far  south  as  Ten- 
nessee and  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina.  It  is  not 
a  southern  grass,  but  will  endure  about  the  same  amount 
of  heat  and  drouth  as  its  cousin,  Kentucky  bluegrass. 

Canada  bluegrass  is  less  particular  about  its  soil  than 
is  Kentucky  bluegrass.  It  likes  clays  and  hard  soils; 
it  comes  where  the  land  is  rather  infertile  and  makes 
the  best  of  it.  Where  there  is  not  quite  enough  lime,  not 
quite  enough  fertility  for  bluegrass,  we  find  this  hard- 
ier type.  Sow  the  two  together  and  if  the  soil  is  in- 
fertile and  lime  lacking,  presently  the  Canada  bluegrass 
will  have  possession  and  the  Kentucky  cousin  will  have 
retreated.  Enrich  that  soil  and  it  may  be  that  the  Canada 
cousin  must  retreat  while  the  more  pampered  cousin 
comes  to  the  front.  It  is. a  fair  indication  of  land  to 
note  which  of  these  grasses  it  supports  in  nature.  I 
should  say  that  land  supporting  spontaneously  Kentucky 
bluegrass  was  worth  about  50  per  cent  more  than  that 
growing  Canada  bluegrass ;  there  may  be  even  a  greater 
difference  than  that.  It  is  a  good  grass,  though,  not  to 
be  despised — grass  that  holds  its  color  and  freshness  even 


CANADA   BLUEGRASS  103 

till  snow  buries  it — a  tremendously  hardy  grass,  difficult 
to  kill  in  cultivated  fields  and  not  tolerating  companion- 
ship of  clovers  as  well  as  does  its  namesake  from  Ken- 
tucky. 

There  are  many  soils  on  which  it  should  be  sown, 
either  alone  or  in  mixture  with  other  grasses.  Lands 
lacking  in  lime,  in  fertility,  may  take  it  quite  well  when 
they  would  not  take  Kentucky  bluegrass  at  all  The  best 
grasses  to  mix  with  it  for  somewhat  inferior  soils  are 
redtop  and  orchard  grass.  Sheep  fescue  added  to  this 
will  also  serve  well.  Cattle  are  fattened  on  this  grass. 
Sometimes  where  both  grasses  are  found  on  the  same  farm 
cattle  are  first  fed  on  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  later  in  the 
season  are  turned  on  Canada  bluegrass  to  finish  them. 
It  is  unquestionably  a  grass  of  high  nutritive  powers. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — Canada  bluegrass  seed  is 
often  sold  as  a  substitute  for  true  Kentucky  bluegrass, 
which  leads  to  some  disappointment.  It  is  an  easy  grass 
to  establish;  15  pounds  of  seed  sown  with  grain  in  the 
fall,  or  with  timothy,  will  give  a  stand.  What  has  been 
said  of  sowing  Kentucky  bluegrass  will  apply  as  well 
to  this  grass. 

Canada  Bluegrass  as  a  Lawn  Grass. — Where  there  is 
not  quite  enough  fertility  nor  moisture  for  Kentucky 
bluegrass  it  may  easily  be  that  Canada  bluegrass  will 
make  a  very  good  lawn.  For  this  purpose  it  should  not 
be  mixed  with  Kentucky  bluegrass,  as  the  two  do  not 
blend  well.  Sheep  fescue  sown  with  it  will  do  very  well. 
Seed  of  Canad.a  bluegrass  is  usually  threshed  with  a 
common  thresher.  The  crop  is  mown  with  a  mower  after 


104  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

the  stems  begin  to  assume  a  golden  color.  It  is  cured  in 
cocks  and  in  the  mow  or  stack.  Much  seed  is  also  ob- 
tained from  wheatfields  in  Ontario,  where  the  grass  is 
cut  and  bound  up  with  wheat  and  both  are  threshed  to- 
gether and  saved. 

If  I  had  a  field  of  cheap  land  growing  Canada  blue- 
grass  I  would  consider  it  well  set  in  a  profitable  pasture 
grass.  If  it  was  growing  on  high-priced  land  I  should 
begin  to  work  on  that  field  with  underdrainage,  carbonate 
of  lime  and  fertilizers  till  it  was  replaced  by  more  pro- 
ductive grasses.  If  one  is  in  doubt  as  to  whether  he  has 
Kentucky  or  Canada  bluegrass  let  him  look  at  the  stems. 
Canada  bluegrass  has  flat  stems,  nearly  solid,  rather  hard 
and  bluish  green  in  color;  Kentucky  bluegrass  has  taller 
stems,  round  and  less  strong,  green  and  turning  yellow 
soon  after  the  seed  forms. 

I  once  made  a  grass  experiment  on  very  thin  mountain 
land  in  Tennessee,  quite  devoid  of  lime.  The  grasses 
that  best  succeeded  there  were,  first  redtop,  second  Can- 
ada bluegrass  and  third  orchard  grass. 

Redtop  (Agrostis  alba). — For  a  fuller  account  of  red- 
tup  see  page  42  under  meadow  grasses.  Redtop  is 
really  a  better  pasture  grass  than  a  meadow  grass.  It 
has  much  the  same  habit  of  growth  as  the  bluegrasses, 
thickening  remarkably  by  underground  stems  and  mak- 
ing a  dense  sod.  It  yields  a  little  more  herbage  than 
Kentucky  bluegrass.  With  Carman  in  Kentucky  the 
yield  was  3.04  tons  of  dry  hay  per  acre,  which  was 
exactly  the  same  yield  as  brome  grass  and  a  little  under 
meadow  fescue.  Timothy  gave  3.68  tons  cut  nearly  two 


EXPERIMENTING    WITH    GRASSES  105 

weeks  later  and  orchard  grass  cut  8  days  earlier  yielded 
3.6  tons.  Redtop  is  not  so  much  liked  by  animals  as 
is  bluegrass,  nor  will  they  fatten  so  well  on  it.  It  is 
adapted  to  wetter  soils  than  most  other  useful  grasses,  and 
is  not  such  a  stickler  for  lime  as  are  the  better  grasses. 
It  endures  heat  better,  too,  and  will  grow  farther  south 
than  will  bluegrasses.  I  have  seen  very  good  redtop  on 
black  buckshot  soil  in  north  Louisiana,  where  I  am  sure 
bluegrass  would  promptly  perish  in  summer  time.  Never- 
theless, it  is  not  at  all  at  home  in  hot  countries;  Ber- 
muda grass  is  a  far  better  pasture  grass  there.  I  am 
inclined  to  advise  this :  Do  not  try  to  force  nature. 
Follow  her  lead.  If  you  have  a  redtop  soil  and  climate 
use  redtop.  If  you  wish  to  grow  bluegrass  where  natural- 
ly only  redtop  grows,  try  drainage,  limestone  and  ferti- 
lizer first. 

Farms  as  Grass  Experiment  Gardens. — It  is  interesting 
to  the  student  of  plant  life  to  observe  how  very  many 
forms  of  grass  may  be  found  on  almost  any  farm.  On 
Woodland  Farm,  for  example,  we  can  find  every  grass 
mentioned  in  this  book  excepting  the  distinctively  south- 
ern grasses,  and  even  some  of  these  are  represented. 
Johnson  grass  has  survived  several  winters  and  is  yet  in 
evidence,  accidentally  established.  One  should  familiar- 
ize himself  with  the  different  species ;  he  can  do  it  readily 
enough,  and  if  he  finds  a  new  grass  that  he  cannot  quite 
place  he  will  get  its  identification  if  he  will  send  a  flower- 
ing specimen,  top,  stem  and  a  bit  of  the  root,  to  his  ex- 
periment station.  Today  (July  23,  1910)  I  can  find  in 
bloom  or  just  out  of  bloom  on  Woodland  Farm  the  blue- 


106  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

grasses,  two  or  three  fescues,  orchard  grass,  timothy, 
redtop,  tall  oatgrass,  nimblewill,  quack  grass  (and  a  fine 
grass  it  is,  too,  one  of  the  best,  if  only  not  so  devilish) 
and  brome  grass — these  of  the  important  cultivated 
grasses,  and  many  minor  grasses  beside  the  annuals.  It 
seems  to  me  one  can  tell  just  by  the  behavior  of  these 
grasses  what  is  best  fitted  to  his  soil  and  has  a  chance  for 
the  most  profit.  With  us  redtop  is  seen  chiefly  in  the 
moister  places ;  it  grows  exceedingly  well ;  we.  have  never 
sown  it  nor,  in  truth,  have  ever  knowingly  sown  several 
other  things  that  are  with  us,  notably  quack  grass  (Agro- 
pyruni  re  pens).  If  one  would  accustom  himself  to  ob- 
serving even  stray  clumps  of  grass  here  and  there  on  his 
own  land  he  would  hardly  need  ask  any  man's  advice 
as  to  what  was  best  for  him  to  grow. 

Redtop  in  Mixtures. — For  all  soils  inclined  to  poverty 
or  wetness,  I  should  include  redtop  in  a  pasture  mixture, 
putting  writh  it  Canada  bluegrass,  sheep  fescue,  orchard 
grass,  alsike  clover  and  little  white  clover.  There  is  a 
peculiar  relationship  between  alsike  clover  and  redtop. 
It  has  been  observed  by  many  farmers  that  the  soil  that 
suits  the  one  suits  the  other  admirably. 

Seeding  to  Redtop. — There  are  from  4  to  6  million 
seeds  in  a  pound  of  redtop  seed.  It  is  smaller  than  tim- 
othy and  is  usually  sown  in  much  the  same  manner  only 
it  must  not  be  covered  as  deeply  as  timothy  hay.  It  is 
easily  established  and  lasts  longer  than  timothyv  It  is 
the  best  grass  for  sour  land  that  one  has  not  had  time 
to  correct  with  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  a  sure  forecaster 
of  soils ;  when  one  sees  a  region  given  over  to  redtop  one 


YIELD  OF  ORCHARD  GRASS  107 

knows  that  there  is  much  soil  acidity  there  and  a  back- 
ward agriculture  generally. 

Orchard  Grass  (Dactylis  giomerata). — For  description 
of  the  grass  see  page  46.  Hardly  any  other  grass  has 
been  more  written  of  than  orchard  grass,  and  yet  it  is 
seldom  used.  It  is  less  easily  sown  than  timothy  among 
meadow  grasses.  Animals  do  not  eat  it  with  the  relish 
that  they  do  bluegrass  in  the  pasture,  yet  it  has  its  place 
and  has  great  value.  Carman  credits  it  with  a  yield  of 
dry  forage  of  3.6  tons  to  the  acre  on  June  12.  In  con- 
trast, brome  grass,  a  much  more  palatable  and  nutritious 
grass,  yielded  five  days  later  3.04  tons;  redtop,  3.04  on 
June  20  and  bluegrass,  June  1 1  i  .68  tons.  It  is  evident 
from  this  comparison  that  orchard  grass  yielded  more 
than  double  what  bluegrass  did,  and  experience  proves 
orchard  grass  to  make  very  good  horses  and  cattle  when 
grazed.  It  yielded  practically  the  same  as  the  very  much 
more  palatable  grass  bromus  inermis,  however,  which 
would  indicate  that  where  one  could  choose  between  the 
two  one  should  take  the  latter.  Orchard  grass,  however, 
will  grow  on  land  too  poor  in  lime  and  too  deficient  in 
fertility  for  bluegrass  or  even  brome  grass.  It  is  easily 
established.  The  seed  is  apt  to  be  good  and  pure  and  is 
not  very  dear.  There  is  good  profit  in  growing  orchard 
grass  seed.  It  roots  deeper  than  most  other  cultivated 
grasses  and  stands  drouth  better.  One  can  get  from  1 50 
to  250  pounds  of  orchard  grass  seed  from  an  acre  and 
afterward  can  have  good  pasture. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — It  may  be  sown  as  timothy 
is  sown,  and  if  sown  alone  30  to  40  pounds  of  seed  are 


108  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

sown  to  the  acre.  I  have  had  excellent  results  in  sow- 
ing this  grass  in  spring,  very  early  and  on  well  prepared 
land.  While  orchard  grass  always  grows  in  stools  it  is 
doubtful  whether  one  can  make  any  gain  by  trying  to 
fill  the  spaces  between  the  stools,  as  the  roots  occupy 
the  land.  It  should  always  be  mixed  with  clovers  and 
grows  quite  well  with  alfalfa.  In  sowing  it  with  the 
latter  one  should  not  use  more  than  1 5  pounds  of  orchard 
grass  seed,  else  it  will  too  much  crowd  the  alfalfa.  Sown 
with  alfalfa,  it  reduces  the  tendency  of  bloat  among  pas- 
tured cattle  and  the  first  cutting  will  be  of  nicely  inter- 
mixed hay.  The  right  mixture  to  put  with  orchard  grass 
is  likely  redtop,  meadow  fescue  and  Canada  bluegrass, 
always  with  clovers  added.  One  must  not  let  orchard 
grass  grow  up  too  rank,  else  the  animals  dislike  it.  One 
can  keep  it  fresh  and  tender  by  mowing  the  rank  spots 
in  the  pasture  and  making  the  coarse  herbage  into  hay. 
I  have  seen  a  curious  thing  here;  cattle  and  horses  would 
come  to  the  mown  grass  when  in  cock  and  eat  it  readily 
though  they  were  running  where  they  could  get  all  the 
uncut  grass  they  desired. 

Do  I  advise  sowing  orchard  grass  pastures?  Doubt- 
less they  may  be  made  very  profitable.  They  are  espe- 
cially useful  for  horses,  which  relish  the  grass  more  than 
do  cattle  or  sheep.  Simply  see  to  it  that  the  pastures  of 
this  grass  are  fenced  to  themselves,  so  that  once  turned 
to  it  the  animals  can  not  choose  but  eat  it ;  they  will  then 
not  neglect  it.  I  think  almost  any  stock-farmer  would 
find  one  pasture  of  orchard  grass  properly  cared  for  a 
profitable  aid  in  maintaining  herds,  flocks  and  studs. 


WHERE  BROME  GRASS  THRIVES  109 

Brome  Grass  (Bromus  inermis). — For  description  of 
this  grass  read  page  50.  I  will  add  here  that  this 
is  one  of  the  deepest-rooted  of  cultivated  grasses.  In 
pervious  soil  its  roots  will  penetrate  4'  to  6'.  It  is  there- 
fore much  more  drouth-resistant  than  bluegrass  or  most 
cultivated  grasses.  Brome  grass  comes  to  us  from  the 
steppes  of  Russia,  those  lands  so  much  like  our  D.akotas 
in  soil  and  climate.  It  is  therefore  adapted  to  all  our 
half-moist  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  will 
grow  well  out  beyond  where  corn  grows,  but  as  one  gets 
far  west  the  yield  decreases  according  to  the  moisture. 
I  have  seen  it  growing  wonderfully  in  eastern  Washing- 
ton where  long  dry  summers  are  the  rule.  In  central 
Ohio  it  has  proved  on  Woodland  Farm  at  least  the  best 
pasture  grass  we  have  ever  tested.  Animals  relish  it  even 
better  than  bluegrass,  and  that  is  high  praise.  I  have 
often  seen  pastures  that  were  in  part  sown  to  brome  grass 
and  in  part  to  other  grasses  eaten  to  the  earth  where 
the  brome  grass  stood  and  left  almost  untouched  in  the 
other  parts.  It  is  therefore  not  perfectly  adapted  to  be- 
ing sown  as  a  pasture  mixture.  I  have  seen  Kentucky 
bluegrass  entirely  supplant  brome  grass  in  12  years,  main- 
ly because  animals  always  bit  the  brome  grass  first  and 
closest.  It  will  not  do  well  mixed  with  orchard  grass  or 
redtop.  With  Kentucky  bluegrass  it  goes  fairly  well, 
though  I  have  observed  that  sheep  and  cattle  usually  eat 
the  bluegrass  last. 

Thousands  of  farmers  should  sow  pastures  of  brome 
grass  who  have  yet  to  test  it,  as  where  it  is  adapted  to 
the  soil  and  climate  it  will  yield  probably  double  what 


110  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

they  are  now  receiving  from  their  native  grasses.  I 
would  not  sow  it  for  meadow  in  the  timothy  region.  It 
does  not  appear  to  thrive  far  south  of  the  Ohio  River. 
Hunt  remarks  that  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  animals  relished 
brome  grass  pasture  better  than  that  of  any  other  grass, 
a  number  of  species  being  grown  in  one  field.  It  seems  to 
prefer  a  soil  rich  in  lime.  On  the  whole,  it  is  a  better 
pasture  than  a  meadow  plant. 

I  have  found  brome  grass  very  easily  established,  and 
if  the  soil  is  good  it  rapidly  thickens  if  the  stand  is  at 
first  somewhat  thin.  Spring  seeding  on  a  good  seedbed, 
preferably  early  in  the  season,  seems  best.  If  I  were 
to  mix  any  grass  with  brome  grass  for  pasture  it  would 
be  timothy  (which  soon  disappears),  meadow  fescue  and 
Kentucky  bluegrass. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — Twenty  pounds  of  good 
seed  to  the  acre  will  give  a  stand.  In  sowing  brome 
grass  on  cultivated  lands  one  should  be  cautious  in  the 
matter  of  the  source  of  seed,  since  it  is  sometimes  mixed 
more  or  less  with  quack  grass.  This  will  do  no  harm 
for  pasture ;  in  truth,  quack  is  one  of  the  very  best  pasture 
grasses.  I  do  not  know  which  will  be  victorious  in 
the  struggle  for  supremacy,  the  brome  grass  or  the  quack, 
though  if  the  land  is  plowed  the  brome  is  soon  killed, 
and  quack  is  left  in  possession.  Brome  grass  needs  clo- 
vers or  alfalfa  in  company  to  make  it  fully  productive. 
I  have  found  it  one  of  the  very  best  grasses  to  sow  with 
alfalfa  where  the  land  is  to  be  pastured,  as  its  presence 
prevents  animals  suffering  from  bloat.  It  is  curious 
that  while  nearly  all  the  cultivated  grasses  spread  them- 


SOILS  FOR  THE  FESCUES  111 

selves  more  or  less  unaided  by  man's  intent,  brome  grass 
is  seen  nowhere  unless  sown.  Yet  it  is  tremendously 
hardy  and  able  to  care  for  itself,  once  established.  Per- 
haps the  heavy  seeds  that  do  not  readily  carry  with  the 
wind  are  unable  to  travel  as  lighter  seeds  do.  Brome 
grass  pastures  will  be  green  and  give  ,a  good  bite  in  spring 
earlier  than  any  other  good  grass  of  my  acquaintance, 
and  it  will  endure  longest  in  the  fall.  It  makes  very 
poor  growth  in  infertile  soils.  Given  rich  land,  it  will 
make  a  splendid  showing.  It  seems  not  adapted  to  south- 
ern conditions. 

Brome  Grass  Needs  to  Recuperate. — L.  Ogilvy,  a  good 
observer  of  things  pastoral,  says  that  brome  grass  to  do 
its  best  or  even  to  do  very  well  as  pasture  grass  should 
have  a  chance  occasionally  to  grow,  after  which  it  may  be 
eaten  down  again.  He  says  that  in  the  West  he  has  not 
seen  brome  grass  do  very  well  when  it  was  subject  to 
continuous  close  pasturing. 

The  Fescue  Grasses. — For  a  description  of  these  see 
Pa§"e  53-  The  fescue  grasses  are  much  used  in  Eng- 
land for  permanent  pastures.  There  are  many  species, 
only  half  a  dozen  of  which  are  in  common  use,  and  these 
only  nominally  so  in  America.  Meadow  fescue,  or  Eng- 
ish  bluegrass  (Festuca  elatior  var.  pratensis)  is  the  most 
worthy  of  cultivation  and  introduction  into  pasture  mix- 
tures. The  richer  the  soil  the  more  meadow  fescue 
crowds  into  the  pasture.  It  is  evident,  too,  that  animals 
relish  it.  Of  all  the  others,  red  fescue  and  sheep  fescue, 
it  is  difficult  to  say  how  much  value  they  may  have. 
Seedsmen  list  them  but  have  so  little  call  for  the  seed 


112  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

that  it  is  often  old  and  of  poor  vitality  when  sold.  Sheep 
fescue  has  much  value  for  poor  pastures  unable  to  hold 
bluegrass.  Sheep  fescue  is  really  a  very  good  grass  on 
pretty  good  clay  soil.  In  making  a  mixture  for  poor 
soils  I  should  include  sheep  fescue  and  perhaps  some 
of  the  other  species,  while  for  good  soils  I  should  in- 
clude meadow  fescue. 

Bermuda  Grass  (Capriola  dactylon). — Bermuda  grass 
is  a  low,  creeping  grass,  found  in  the  South,  usually  no 
more  than  i  high,  though  on  rich  soils  it  may  be  as 
much  as  2'.  It  spreads  rapidly  by  means  of  underground 
stems  and  above  ground  will  send  out  stolons  or  long 
runners  that  strike  root  at  each  joint.  In  this  manner 
it  rapidly  covers  the  ground.  It  is  propagated  by  plant- 
ing chopped-up  bits  of  sod,  and  from  its  rapid  spread 
when  conditions  are  right  it  soon  has  possession  of  the 
land.  Bermuda  grass  is  sometimes  propagated  by  seed, 
but  as  the  seed  is  very  costly  and  of  uncertain  germina- 
tion, it  is  far  more  profitable  to  plant  the  roots.  I  have 
sown  a  great  deal  of  seed  under  what  seemed  favorable 
conditions  without  getting  more  than  10  in  a  million 
to  make  plants.  To  plant  the  roots  fortunately  is  easy. 
One  need  only  plow  shallow  furrows  through  a  Bermuda 
sod,  with  a  spade  cut  the  sod  into  bits  as  large  as  bis- 
cuits, throw  them  into  a  wagon  or  into  barrels  and  take 
them  to  the  field  where  they  may  be  planted  as  One  would 
plant  potatoes,  only  covering  not  so  deep.  The  better 
the  land  the  better  the  Bermuda  grass.  It  will  grow, 
however,  on  rather  thin  soils,  if  it  must.  It  is  well  in 
planting  it  to  make  a  good  seedbed  by  plowing  and 


BERMUDA   GRASS 


113 


Bermuda  Grass    (Cynadon  Dactylon). 


114  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

rowing,  just  as  one  would  for  a  cultivated  crop,  then 
furrow  in  shallow  furrows  about  3'  apart,  drop  the  sods, 
push  them  in  with  the  foot  and  with  a  drag  make  the 
surface  smooth  again.  If  afterward  the  weeds  are  kept 
mowed,  the  Bermuda  will  within  one  year  make  a  dense 
sod. 

Bermuda  grass  loves  intense  heat.  Frost  kills  it  and 
freezing  the  roots  is  often  fatal  to  it.  There  are  strains 
hardier  than  others,  and  in  Oklahoma  there  seems  to 
have  developed  a  strain  of  unusual  hardiness.  It  is  of 
little  use  after  frost,  as  the  leaves  do  not  seem  to  retain 
their  virtues  in  winter  as  do  the  blades  of  many  northern 
grasses.  Nor  will  it  start  early  in  spring ;  it  awaits  warm 
weather.  . 

Bermuda  is  the  bluegrass  of  the  South.  It  makes  a 
similar  but  tougher  sod.  It  yields  a  very  great  amount 
of  forage  on  suitable  soil.  It  affiliates  well  with  clovers, 
especially  with  little  white  clover.  I  feel  assured  that 
on  a  bit  of  sandy  loam  alluvial  soil  in  Louisiana  set  to 
Bermuda  grass  and  white  clover,  I  have  seen  more  cat- 
tle, pigs,  horses  and  mules  grazed  than  I  have  ever  seen 
on  a  similar  area  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  It  is  not 
very  productive  on  poor  or  dry  soils,  yet  it  may  do  more 
than  any  other  grass  would  do  there.  It  is  a  most  effi- 
cient soil  binder  where  there  is  danger  of  erosion,  and 
river  levees  in  the  South  are  always  sodded  as  soon  as 
they  are  completed.  It  will  stand  more  or  less  submerg- 
ence, but.to.be  under  water  for  a  long  time  will  destroy 
it.  Bermuda  grass  is  little  seen  north  of  Tennessee, 
southern  Missouri  and  Oklahoma,  though  it  is  a  little  in 


BERMUDA  ON  POOR  SOILS  115 

use  in  southern  Kansas.  It  is  not  a  grass  for  arid  lands 
nor  for  regions  of  frequent  frost.  It  is  essentially  a 
pasture  grass,  yet  under  favorable  conditions,  rich,  moist 
soils,  it  may  be  cut  for  hay  several  times  during  the  sum- 
mer. The  yield  is  hard  to  estimate.  Planters  have  re- 
ported as  much  as  4  or  more  tons  to  the  acre,  taken  in 
four  or  more  cuttings.  It  is  a  grass  that  soon  gets  woody 
and  wiry  unless  either  mown  off  or  grazed  close.  The 
closer  it  is  grazed  on  rich,  moist  land  the  better  it  is. 
It  is  said  that  an  acre  of  well-set  Bermuda  grass  will 
carry  10  sheep  for  10  months.  I  fear  the  sheep  thus 
confined  would  sicken  of  parasites  in  less  time  than  that, 
but  it  would  not  be  the  fault  of  the  grass  if  they  did. 

It  has  been  often  said  that  attention  to  Bermuda  grass 
would  revolutionize  the  South.  This,  unfortunately,  is 
not  quite  easy  of  accomplishment.  It  is  not  true  that 
very  productive  Bermuda  grass  would  cover  all  the  old 
cotton  fields  and  gullied  hillsides.  It  might  be  made 
to  grow  there  in  time,  and  no  other  grass  would  grow 
there  so  well,  yet  there  is  no  mysterious  power  in  Ber- 
muda grass  that  will  find  fertility  where  it  has  not  been 
put  by  Nature  or  man.  On  worn  soils  Bermuda  grass 
will  need  to  be  fed. 

Bermuda  Grass  on  Poor  Soils. — If  one  has  any  sort 
of  manure  he  is  indeed  fortunate,  and  no  other  prepara- 
tion will  be  needed  than  to  manure  the  land,  plow  it, 
and  plant  the  sods.  The  difficulty  with  the  South  is,  how- 
ever, that  there  is  usually  not  much  manure  available 
and  recourse  must  be  had  to  other  means.  A  good  prepa- 
ration would  be  to  turn  under  a  crop  of  cowpeas.  The 


116  MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

land  could  then  be  fertilized  well,  using  whatever  arti- 
ficial fertilizer  best  suited  the  soil,  then  the  Bermuda 
grass  planted  and  at  the  right  time  sowing  little  white 
clover.  One  can  not  use  the  large-growing  clovers  with 
Bermuda  grass,  since  it  will  not  endure  shade.  It  is 
really  a  tropical  grass  and  revels  in  heat  and  sunlight. 
Bur  clover  grows  with  it  fairly  well,  but  white  clovei 
fits  it  best  of  all,  and  fortunately  this  clover  is  native  to 
nearly  all  the  South.  Lespedeza  grows  fairly  well  with 
Bermuda  grass  and  this  also  may  be  sown  after  the  grass 
has  been  planted. 

Weeds  are  the  bane  of  Bermuda  grass.  When  well- 
shaded  it  dies.  I  once  wondered  why  in  the  dooryard 
lot  of  a  southern  plantation  that  I  was  studying  there 
was  not  one  sprig  of  Bermuda  grass,  though  it  was 
abundant  on  the  levee  bank  a  few  hundred  feet  away. 
Later  I  learned  that  there  had  been  a  fine  Bermuda  lawn 
there  for  many  years  and  only  the  rank  weeds  that  sprang 
up  during  a  temporary  abandonment  of  the  place  had 
killed  the  grass.  On  the  levee  trespassing  cows  had  kept 
the  land  clear  enough  to  perpetuate  the  grass.  In  one  year 
we  re-established  the  grass  in  the  lawn.  It  is  indeed  a 
marvel  of  rapid  establishment  on  good  soil.  The  lesson 
is  to  mow  off  the  weeds  once  or  twice  a  year  while  es- 
tablishing the  grass.  Afterward,  when  in  pasture,  there 
will  be.  few  or  no  weeds  to  trouble.  A  pure  stand  of 
Bermuda  and  white  clover,  hard-grazed,  on  rich  land, 
is  as  clean  a  thing  as  one  will  ever  find.  On  thin,  poor 
soils  it  will  pay  exceedingly  well  to  fertilize  the  Bermuda 
pasture.  I  should  do  this  very  early  in  spring,  or,  if 


ERADICATING    BERMUDA    GRASS 


117 


white  clover  can  make  a  winter  growth,  as  in  the  Guli 
States,  do  it  in  the  fall.  This  fertilization  may  be  of 
any  enriching  material.  Acid  phosphate  will  stimulate 
the  clover;  bonemeal  is  perhaps  better,  or  one  may  use 
a  complete  fertilizer.  The  object  is  to  make  the  white 
clover  grow  as  vigorously  during  the  cool  part  of  the 
year  as  it  can.  While  it  is  growing  it  is  filling  the  land 
with  nitrogen  which  later  on  the  Bermuda  grass  will 
use.  Do  not  graze  the  clover  down  close  if  you  wish 
to  get  the  most  good  from  it.  Unquestionably  it  would 
add  tremendously  to  the  wealth  of  the  South  to  put  Ber- 
muda grass  over  a  great  proportion  of  the  plowed  land 
there.  It  stops  erosion  and  builds  soil.  There  has  long 
been  in  the  minds  of  southern  men  a  deadly  fear  of  Ber- 
muda grass — fear  that  it  could  not  be  eradicated  when 
they  wished  to  farm  the  land. 

Eradicating  Bermuda  Grass. — There  is  no  great  diffi- 
culty in  destroying  Bermuda  grass  on  most  soils.    Assur- 
edly one  needs  to  know  its  nature  and  go  at  it  intelli- 
gently.    It  is  best  to  combat  it  with  shade.     The  land 
may  be  plowed  in  the  fall  and  sown  to  wheat  or  oats. 
In  order  to  have  a  rank  growth  of  either  of  these  grains, 
fertilize  the  land  well.     Harvest  the  crop,  preferably  for 
hay,  before  the  Bermuda  makes  much  growth   in  the 
spring,  and  at  once  plow  thoroughly  again.     Here  the 
worn,  half-starved  mule  of  the  negro  tenant  farmer  must 
be  replaced  by  the  well-fed  span  of  the  modern  intelligent 
farmer.     It  requires  motive  power  to  do  things  right. 
Sow  the  land  to  cowpeas  or  velvet  beans,  choosing  a 
very  prolific  variety  that  makes  much  vine.     The  peas 


118  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

had  better  be  cultivated  and  fertilized  as  well.  When 
they  are  taken  off  the  land  will  be  free  from  Bermuda 
grass  and  in  more  fertile  condition  than  ever  before. 
When  the  peas  come  off  it  may  be  sown  again  to  wheat, 
vetches,  alfalfa  or  some  suitable  clover.  The  following 
spring  it  may  safely  be  put  to  corn  or  cotton. 

Choice  of  Land  for  Bermuda  Grass. — I  observe  the 
best  Bermuda  growing  on  sandy  loams  or  on  the  loess 
soils  along  the  Mississippi  River.  On  hard  clays  and 
"buckshot"  lands  it  does  not  yield  nearly  so  well,  mainly 
because  when  tramped  by  stock  these  lands  become  so 
very  hard  that  they  dry  out  badly  and  the  Bermuda  suf- 
fers an  almost  continuous  thirst. 

Bermuda  Grass  in  Oklahoma. — I  have  seen  nothing 
finer  than  the  Bermuda  grass  lawns  and  pastures  of  Ok- 
lahoma. John  Fields,  former  director  of  the  Oklahoma 
Experiment  Station,  was  the  first  to  see  the  great  value  of 
this  grass  for  that  state  of  hot  sun  and  summer  dry  ness, 
and  his  efforts  have  resulted  in  thousands  of  Bermuda  pas- 
tures being  planted  there.  L.  A.  Moorhouse  in  Bulletin 
75  of  the  Oklahoma  station  writes  thus  of  the  history  of 
Bermuda  grass : 

"Bermuda  grass  is  a  well-known  plant  in  our  southern  states. 
It  has  been  grown  in  the  south  for  more  than  three-quarters  of 
century,  and  many  are,  therefore,  familiar  with  the  characteristics 
of  this  plant.  According  to  the  most  authentic  records  this  grass 
was  formerly  introduced  from  the  tropical  regions  of  the  east,  and 
it  is  not  indigenous  to  the  Bermuda  Islands  as  the  name  might  lead 
us  to  suppose.  One  of  the  earliest  records  of  the  appearance  of 
this  plant  in  America  dates  back  to  1825,  at  which  time  it  was 
found  growing  in  Georgia.  It  was  distributed  to  some  extent  at  this 
early  date;  thus  this  grass  has  come  to  be  of  economic  importance 


HOW   BERMUDA   PROPAGATES 


119 


120  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

in  southern  sections.  Bermuda  grass  seed  was  sown  in  Oklahoma 
in  1892,  and  a  set  was  secured  in  the  Experiment  Station  grass 
garden.  The  frosts  of  winter  damaged  the  stand  to  some  extent; 
however,  a  subsequent  analysis  of  the  plot  led  to  the  selection  of 
some  plants  which  survived  these  low  temperatures.  These  plants 
when  reset  came  through  the  winter  in  good  condition,  and  a  new 
growth  started  quite  early  in  the  spring.  Later  studies  with  regard 
to  this  feature  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  this  selection  pos- 
sessed a  characteristic  which  has  been  described  as  hardiness. 

"In  referring  to  the  initial  selections  the  following  outline  was 
made  a  matter  of  record  in  Oklahoma  Bulletin  No.  70,  entitled 
'Hardy  Bermuda  Grass' :  Close  observation  of  several  different 
plats  of  Bermuda  grass  indicated  that  some  of  it  withstood  the  cold 
weather  better  than  others  and  began  growing  as  early  as  April  1, 
even  after  a  hard  winter.  In  order  to  test  this  characteristic  more 
carefully  a  large  planting  of  roots  was  made  early  in  July,  1904. 
Part  of  the  roots  were  taken  from  a  plat  recently  grown  from  seed. 
Other  roots  were  taken  from  a  plat  that  had  been  growing  for  at 
least  10  years  and  which  may  have  started  from  seed  sown  in  1892. 
Its  source  is  not  known,  but  it  is  certain  that  this  grass  passed 
through  the  freeze  of  February,  1899,  when  the  temperature  fell  17 
degrees  below  zero  with  no  snow  on  the  ground.  Little  difference 
was  shown  in  the  growth  of  the  grass  from  the  different  plats, 
and  there  was  a  heavy  growth  over  all  the  field  before  frost.  In 
the  spring  of  1905,  after  an  unusually  severe  winter  with  a  tempera- 
ture of  18°  below  zero,  there  was  a  marked  difference.  On  March 
29  all  of  the  Bermuda  grown  from  acclimated  roots  was  green 
and  growing  vigorously.  It  soon  covered  the  ground  perfectly  to 
the  exclusion  of  crab  grass.  When  roots  recently  grown  from  seed 
were  planted,  all  the  previous  season's  growth  was  killed ;  new 
growth  did  not  start  from  the  roots  until  May,  and  then  only  in 
patches.  There  was  more  crab  grass  than  Bermuda  grass  on  this 
plat  throughout  the  season. 

"Bermuda  grass  roots  have  been  sent  out  to  a  large  number  of 
districts  within  this  state.  Within  the  past  15  years  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  standard  grasses  have  been  grown  on  trial  plots  at  the 
station  farm,  and  it  has,  therefore,  been  possible  to  compare  these 
types  not  only  with  Bermuda  grass,  but  they  have  also  been  com- 
pared with  our  native  pasture  grasses.  For  the  average  upland 
soils  of  central  Oklahoma  Bermuda  grass  is  superior  to  such  types 


PITTING  SOIL  FOR  BERMUDA  121 

as  Kentucky  bluegrass,  English  bluegrass  or  meadow  fescue,  and 
Bromus  inermis  or  brome  grass;  after  making  these  tests  we  are 
also  firmly  convinced  that  Bermuda  grass  has  a  wide  range  of 
profitable  culture  in  the  new  state.  In  making  field  trials  with  the 
grasses  which  have  been  mentioned,  it  should  be  observed  that 
some  success  might  attend  the  efforts  of  the  husbandman  if  these 
grasses  were  grown  on  very  fertile  soil,  as  the  rich  alluvial  river 
and  creek  bottom  lands  of  the  state ;  but  we  must  remark  that 
such  areas  are  ideal  for  the  culture  of  alfalfa,  and,  wherever  this 
forage  plant  can  be  grown,  it  should  be  given  the  preference.  The 
common  grasses  do  not  return  more  than  two  cuttings  per  season 
at  best,  and  the  yield  per  acre  would  not  exceed  2  or  2l/2  tons; 
alfalfa,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  at  least  five  crops  per  season,  and 
will  bring  all  the  way  from  5  to  7  tons  per  acre  on  such  land.  The 
lesson  which  ought  to  be  drawn  from  this  discussion  may  be  stated 
briefly:  Use  the  best  land  on  the  farm  for  alfalfa;  the  poorer  sec- 
tions can  be  set  aside  for  the  growth  of  Bermuda  grass. 

"In  rolling  sections  large  ditches  or  gullies  are  frequently 
washed  out  by  the  roadsides,  and  if  no  attempt  is  made  to  check 
this  erosion  the  road  bed  itself  may  be  cut  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  will  be  impossible  to  haul  heavy  loads  over  that  portion.  Ber- 
muda grass  may  be  used  to  check  such  washes.  It  may  also  be 
planted  on  very  rolling  fields.  We  have  many  field  illustrations  in 
this  section  which  serve  to  show  that  continuous  culture,  whether 
it  be  with  corn  or  cotton,  results  in  such  a  disfiguration  of  the  sur- 
face that  many  portions  are  finally  discarded.  Areas  of  this  char- 
acter should  be  devoted  to  pasture,  and  if  planted  to  Bermuda, 
the  soil  will  remain  intact.  Bermuda  grass  furnishes  an  excellent 
covering  for  pond  banks,  and  it  may  also  be  planted  in  districts 
where  the  sand  has  a  tendency  to  drift  or  blow." 

Preparation  of  Soil. — "Fields  which  are  to  be  set  to  Bermuda 
grass  should  receive  almost  as  careful  preparation  as  in  cases 
where  the  land  is  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  corn  or  cotton. 
Although  this  grass  is  a  persistent  and  vigorous  grower  and  thrives 
fairly  well,  when  planted  on  a  poorly-prepared  surface,  it  will 
respond  readily  to  good  treatment.  It  can  be  grown  on  all  types 
or  classes  of  soil, -from  the  sandy  or  open  type  down  to  the  heavy 
impervious  clay  soils.  If  the  soil  is  open  in  structure  and  does  not 
have  a  tendency  to  bake,  the  plowing  may  be  done  two  or  three 
weeks  prior  to  planting;  the  heavier  soils  should  be  plowed  early 


122  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

in  the  season.  A  few  severe  frosts  assist  materially  in  securing  a 
mellow  surface  or  seed  bed.  A  few  days  prior  to  planting  the  field 
can  be  worked  down  thoroughly  with  a  disk  harrow,  and  later,  may 
be  brought  into  level  form  with  a  smoothing  harrow.  In  latitudes 
as  far  north  as  central  Oklahoma  Bermuda  grass  does  not  produce 
very  much  pasture  after  the  middle  of  November,  and  the  plants 
lie  dormant  during  the  winter  months.  The  new  growth  starts  as 
early  as  March  15,  and  if  the  spring  is  open,  some  pasture  may  be 
secured  from  the  field  during  the  latter  part  of  April.  Bermuda 
grass  makes  its  best  growth  during  the  warm  summer  weather, 
and,  for  this  reason,  it  is  not  advisable  to  plant  roots  much  before 
the  first  of  May.  We  prefer  to  do  this  work  in  May,  at  which  time 
the  soil  is  usually  moist;  hence  the  roots  commence  to  grow  and 
spread  as  soon  as  they  are  placed  in  the  soil.  We  have  already- 
stated  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  seed.  The  planting  season, 
then,  opens  about  the  first  of  May  and  the  work  may  be  continued 
throughout  M!ay  and  June.  Fairly  satisfactory  sets  have  been  ob- 
tained in  cases  where  the  roots  were  planted  as  late  as  July  15. 
The  later  plantings  are  not  as  desirable  as  the  earlier  plantings, 
for  the  reason  that  the  dry  summer  weather  checks  the  root  in  its 
growth,  and  a  dense  turf  cannot  be  produced  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  season  unless  the  weather  is  ideal." 

Method  of  Planting. — "After  the  soil  has  been  cultivated  thor- 
oughly it  may  be  marked  off  in  rows  30"  to  36"  apart  and  small 
pieces  of  Bermuda  roots  may  be  dropped  at  intervals  of  18"  in 
the  shallow  furrows  or  rows.  A  corn-marker  or  a  cultivator  with 
two  heavy  shovels  set  at  the  proper  distance  may  be  used  to  open 
the  furrows.  The  roots  should  be  covered  with  a  small  quantity 
of  earth.  It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  provide  this  covering  either 
by  using  a  hoe,  or  by  moving  the  earth  with  the  foot  as  the  roots 
are  dropped.  If  the  seed  bed  is  loose  and  will  permit  the  rapid 
escape  of  soil  moisture,  this  condition  may  be  changed  by  using 
a  roller  on  the  field.  Some  growers  make  a  practice  of  harrow- 
ing after  the  sods  have  been  planted,  but  this  operation  has  a  ten- 
dency to  bring  many  of  the  roots  to  the  surface;  hence  they  fail 
to  grow.  Others  prefer  to  scatter  the  roots  broadcast  and  disk 
them  in ;  however,  this  method  has  not  given  as  satisfactory  results 
as  the  first  plan.  Bermuda  plants  produced  from  seed  have  in 
some  cases  made  a  fair  showing  the  first  season,  but  many  lack 
vigor  and  severe  frosts  will  destroy  the  major  portion  of  them." 


CARPET   GRASS 


123 


Carpet    Grass    (Paspalum    compressum) :    a,    attachment    of    spikelets    to 
b  and  c,   spikelets;   d,   floret. 


124  MEADOWS    AND   PASTURES 

Carpet  Grass  (The  Paspalums). — There  are  several 
species  of  paspalum.  They  are  low,  creeping,  spreading 
grasses  that  come  in  moist  land  in  the  South.  They  make 
the  best  grazing  on  the  lowland  prairies  of  Florida,  and 
are  often  seen  in  Louisiana.  Animals  like  to  graze  on 
carpet  grass,  but  it  is  less  nutritious  than  Bermuda, 
which  it  sometimes  crowds  out.  I  do  not  know  that  seed 
of  these  native  carpet  grasses  is  ever  sold ;  it  is  sometimes 
spread  by  cutting  the  ripe  stems  and  spreading  them  over 
the  land.  The  carpet  grasses  are  good  pasture  grasses 
and  are  mentioned  here  because  probably  southern  read- 
ers may  desire  to  know  how  good  a  thing  they  may  have 
growing  wild.  Compared  with  Bermuda  the  paspalums 
are  hardier,  and  are  green  in  cold  weather,  though  they 
do  not  actually  grow  unless  there  is  some  warmth  in  the 
soil.  They  are  easily  eradicated  by  land  cultivation. 

Texas  Blue  grass  (Poa  arichnifera) . — Perhaps  this 
should  have  been  described  among  the  poas.  It  is  left 
for  this  place  because  it  is  distinctively  a  southern  grass. 
If  only  it  had  some  way  of  easy  distribution  and  seed- 
ing, it  would  be  an  invaluable  grass  for  southern  soils. 
It  makes  a  very  beautiful  sward,  which  is  green  at  near- 
ly all  seasons  in  the  South.  It  is  thus  far  better  than 
Bermuda  grass  for  a  lawn.  In  Kansas,  Prof.  Shelton  re- 
ports that  it  is  hardy  and  that  it  yields  three  or  four 
times  as  much  as  Kentucky  bluegrass.  The  seed  of  Tex- 
as bluegrass  is  very  light  and  peculiar,  having  a  cobwebby 
feel.  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  a  stand  of  grass  by  sow- 
ing the  seed,  though  it  has  ai  way  of  thickening  itself  af- 
ter the  manner  of  poas  when  one  gets  a  thin  stand.  It  is 


TEXAS  BLUEGfcASS 


125 


Texas  Bluegrass  (Poa  arachnif era) . 


126  MEADOWS    AND    t»ASfUfcE$ 

better  spread  by  planting  small  bits  of  sod  as  one  would 
potatoes,  only  covering  no  more  than  an  inch  deep.  The 
sod  may  be  cut  into  pieces  no  more  than  an  inch  square, 
so  that  a  little  of  it  will  go  a  good  way,  but  as  it  does 
not  spread  so  very  rapidly  the  bits  should  be  placed  about 
one  foot  apart.  Texas  bluegrass  likes  good  soil.  If  I 
were  living  in  the  South  I  should  endeavor  to  establish 
it  in  my  garden,  whence  I  could  transplant  it  to  the  lawn, 
and  later  perhaps  to  permanent  pasture. 

St.  Augustine  Grass  (Stenotaphrum  dimideaton). — 
This  grass  is  used  in  Florida  as  a  lawn  grass.  It  seems 
to  thrive  on  very  poor  sandy  soils,  and  to  make  an  ex- 
cellent sod.  It  seems  hardy  as  far  north  as  Charleston, 
but  is  not  seen  far  from  the  coast.  It  is  planted  by  cut- 
tings, as  is  Bermuda  grass. 

Quack  Grass  (Agropyrum  re  pens). — Death  is  a  thing 
that  is  pretty  sure  to  happen  to  the  other  fellow.  No  one 
ever  considers  that  it  may  happen  to  him.  The  same 
thing  is  true  of  our  enemy,  quack  grass.  We  see  it  on 
other  men's  farms,  and  complacently  believe  that  it  will 
never  attack  our  own.  It  is  in  Iowa,  Minnesota,  New 
York;  it  will  never  come  to  Ohio  or  Illinois,  so  we  im- 
agine. Take  it  from  me  that  quack  grass  can  and  will 
come  to  all  regions  north  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  I  see 
no  reason  why  it  should  not  thrive  far  south  of  that. 
When  it  comes  it  comes  unannounced.  You  do  not  dream 
that  you  have  it  till  it  has  made  a  few  patches  in  your  field 
so  tough  that  men  can  not  cultivate  through  them;  then 
you  begin  to  wonder  what  it  is  that  has  possession  of  you. 
It  takes  you  after  that  several  years  really  to  awaken  to  a 


QUACK  GRASS 


127 


Quack    Grass    (Agropyrum — triticum — repens). 


128  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

realization  of  what  it  means  to  root  it  out.  After  all, 
quack  grass  is  one  of  the  best  of  pasture  grasses.  If  one 
cared  only  for  pasturing  a  field  he  need  not  desire  a  bet- 
ter grass.  It  is  like  bluegrass  in  its  habit  of  growth,  only 
the  running  underground  stems  or  rootstocks  are  long- 
er, and  penetrate  deeper.  One  can  turn  up  a  sod  of  blue- 
grass  and  have  every  rootstock  so  that  the  whole  mass 
is  easily  killed.  This  is  not  so  easy  with  quack  grass,  as 
it  roots  too  deeply  for  that.  It  is  a  good  pasture  grass 
for  that  very  reason.  It  grows  from  i'  to  3'  high  and 
makes  a  dense  mass  of  leaves  and  stems.  The  forage  is 
sweet  and  good.  It  makes  a  lot  of  hay  on  good  soil,  but 
one  should  cut  it  before  any  seed  stems  form,  else  it  will 
seed  further  areas  by  the  seeds  getting  in  the  manure. 

Quack  grass  is  a  pest  in  Europe.  In  England  it  gets 
into  the  alfalfa  meadow  and  destroys  it  in  a  few  years. 
It  is  harder  there  to  destroy  than  here,  because  there  the 
earth  seldom  becomes  dry  enough  to  kill  roots  not  actu- 
ally raked  out  into  the  air.  In  Iowa  it  has  been  said  that 
the  value  of  a  farm  infested  with  quack  grass  was  cut  in 
two.  In  Minnesota  it  is  very  troublesome.  I  once  at- 
tended a  number  of  farmers'  institutes  in  Minnesota  and 
it  was  amusing  to  observe  that  in  our  question  box  at 
every  point  were  several  questions  alike,  "How  can  I  kill 
quack  grass  ?" 

On  rich  black  soil  if  quack  is  left  to  thicken  for  a  few 
years  it  is  all  but  impossible  to  plow  through  a  sod  of  it. 
It  is  impossible  to  cultivate  through  it  with  ordinary  cul- 
tivators ;  they  will  not  pass  through  the  tough  sod.  It  is 
well,  therefore,  to  take  it  in  time.  It  came  to  Woodland 


ERADICATING    QUACK    GRASS  129 

Farm  all  unawares.  We  got  the  seed  in  some  grass  mix- 
ture, and  before  we  knew  it,  it  had  become  a  pest.  There 
had  been  brome  grass  in  the  field  and  we  thought  at  first 
we  were  only  having  trouble  with  that.  Later  we  learned 
with  a  good  deal  of  alarm  what  had  possession  of  us,  and 
began  to  fight  it  rather  vigorously.  At  the  outset  we 
plowed  the  field  very  thoroughly  and  with  the  harrow 
kept  the  grass  down  till  corn  could  be  planted.  We  be- 
gan to  cultivate  the  corn  before  it  was  up,  and  cultivated 
it^deep  and  often.  To  our  joy  the  grass  proved  under 
our  Ohio  sun  easy  to  kill,  once  the  roots  were  thrown  up 
to  its  rays.  Twice  during  the  summer  men  went  through 
the  field  with  hoes  and  carefully  dug  out  what  the  plows 
had  missed.  To  get  after  the  worst  patches  I  had  spe- 
cial tools  made  by  taking  4-tined  hay  forks  and  having 
their  tines  bent  at  right  angles  like  human  fingers.  These 
scratchers  \vill  dig  down  into  a  patch  of  quack  grass  and 
pull  out  every  root.  It  is  not  enough  to  cut  off  the  tops 
unless  it  is  done  more  often  than  is  practicable  on  the 
ordinary  farm.  One  must  dig  out  the  roots.  To  our  de- 
light the  enemy  has  been  put  to  flight.  At  really  very 
slight  expense  more  than  we  should  have  taken  to  give 
the  corn  thorough  tillage,  we  have  the  grass  so  subdued 
that  it  is  rather  hard  to  find.  As  I  write  men  are  search- 
ing carefully  for  stray  plants  of  it.  We  will  repeat  this 
promising  method  next  year  and  hope  thus  entirely  to 
eradicate  it. 

We  are  foolish  if  we  let  quack  grass  encroach  on  our 
cornbelt  farms.  It  is  sure  to  be  a  worse  pest  in  the  land 
where  small  grain  is  the  chief  reliance.  It  must  have  a 


130  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

hoed  crop — a  crop  that  can  have  deep  cultivation  in  or- 
der to  subdue  it. 

First  then,  to  know  it,  be  on  lookout  for  it.  One  can 
not  trust  to  one's  men  for  this;  they  are  not  sufficient- 
ly close  observers.  When  you  see  a  suspiciously  persist- 
ent grass  in  your  cultivated  field  go  at  once  and  dig  to 
see  what  sort  of  root  it  has.  The  top  of  quack  grass  is 
not  unlike  timothy  at  first ;  the  blades  are  narrower ;  when 
it  heads  the  head  is  distinctly  different  but  it  will  not 
head  maybe  for  a  year  or  t\vo;  do  not  wait  to  see  that. 
Dig  down  and  see  if  it  has  that  running  underground 
rootstock,  about  as  large  as  a  shoestring,  with  its  sharp 
point,  shooting  out  after  new  space  to  fill.  If  you  find 
that  get  busy.  Do  not  dread  it,  do  not  worry  over  it,  but 
above  all  do  not  procrastinate  a  day;  get  action  of  some 
sort.  Salt  will  not  kill  it  unless  enormous  amounts  are 
used.  Dig  it  out ;  cut  it  off  deep  under  the  ground  but  as 
far  as  you  can;  get  the  roots  out  where  they  will  dry. 
Then  "do  it  now."  Do  not  put  it  off;  if  you  have  only  a 
few  patches  of  the  grass  today  you  may  have  a  solid  field 
of  it  in  a  few  years. 

It  has  been  said  that  there  is  no  more  valuable  pasture 
grass  for  Nebraska  and  Dakota  than  this,  and  it  may  be 
true;  it  is  assuredly  a  sweet,  nutritious  grass  and  rather 
heavy-yielding.  I  should  sow  brome  grass  though,  for 
there  is  no  doubt  as  to  our  ability  to  get  rid  of  that  when 
we  wish. 

Nimblewill. — This  is  often  mistaken  for  quack  grass. 
It  is  a  branching  grass,  with  a  peculiar  odor.  It  has 
sharp-jointed  creeping  rootstocks  and  also  makes  a  bad 


NIMBLEWILL    A    BAD    WEED 


131 


Nimble  will   (Muhlenbergia  Diffusa). 


132  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

weed,  but  it  does  not  send  out  so  long  underground  run- 
ners and  so  spreads  very  much  less.  Moreover,  one  can 
with  one  pull  of  a  hoe  unearth  every  bit  of  a  clump  of 
it  and  shake  off  the  earth  so  that  it  dies.  I  do  not  know 
the  real  value  of  nimblewill,  but  advise  its  extermination. 
Like  quack  grass  it  is  very  bad  for  alfalfa,  and  soon 
crowds  it  out. 

Eradicating  Quack  in  the  Northwest. — For  some  rea- 
son the  grass  is  harder  to  destroy  and  spreads  more  rap- 
idly in  northern  regions  than  elsewhere.  It  may  be  be- 
cause of  our  habit  in  the  cornbelt  of  frequent  rotations 
of  corn  which  is  cultivated  during  hot,  dry  weather  when 
the  grass  is  easiest  killed,  while  the  northern  regions  are 
more  given  over  to  crops  of  small  grain.  Prof.  Henry 
L.  Bolley  of  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  thus 
relates  his  method  of  destruction  in  The  Breeder's  Ga- 
zette : 

"To  give  advice  to  farmers  whose  lands  are  now  over-run  by 
quack  grass  may  seem  as  though  adding  insult  to  unavoidable  in- 
jury, for  to  quack  grass  extermination  there  is  no  easy  road.  No 
spraying  method  for  eradication  of  this  grass  is  economically  pos- 
sible while  other  crops  are  to  be  grown.  Direct  application  of  salt 
to  the  areas  has  not  proved  satisfactory.  If  in  small  patches  up- 
root it  in  dry  hot  weather  and  as  far  as  possible,  remove  all 
underground  stems.  Visit  the  areas  once  every  eight  or  10  days 
and  remove  every  apparent  spear  of  grass  with  the  attached  under- 
ground stem.  Or  cut  it  off  in  July  and  cover  closely  with  tar  paper 
so  as  to  quite  exclude  the  light.  Allow  the  paper  to  remain  there 
through  July  and  August;  then  plow  deeply.  Or  cut  it  off  closely 
in  July  and  cover  deeply  with  straw  or  manure.  Visit  the  areas 
often.  Dig  up  any  scattering  plants  not  covered. 

"If  in  large  areas,  mow  the  grass  off  when  in  blossom,  break 
the  sod  shallow  (not  to  exceed  two  inches)  in  mid- July.  Back-set 
in  mid-August  at  a  depth  but  slightly  deeper  than  before.  Then 


LEGUMINOUS    CROPS  133 

disc  and  harrow  throughout  the  fall  never  allowing  any  green 
leaves  to  show.  Then  plow  deeply  in  the  late  fall.  Plant  a  culti- 
vated crop  the  following  season  and  follow  the  cultivator  with  a 
hoeman  who  looks  for  every  spear  of  the  grass.  Or,  after  thor- 
oughly preparing  the  seed  bed  in  the  spring  give  it  a  heavy  seeding 
of  German  millet,  say,  2  to  2l/2  pecks  of  good  seed,  preferably  sown 
broadcast.  Sow  the  millet  late  in  May.  At  no  time  during  this 
process  of  field  preparation  should  the  quack  grass  be  allowed  to 
show  green  and  if  possible  the  ground  should  never  be  worked 
while  wet.  The  drier  the  ground  and  hotter  the  weather  the  better 
the  killing  effect  of  the  cultivation.  Any  annual  forage  crop  which 
will  give  a  dense  and  rapid  growth  may  be  substituted  for  millet 
though  I  think  it  has  no  equal  unless  it  is  fodder  corn  sown  broad- 
cast." 

THE  LEGUMES. 

For  a  full  and  valuable  account  of  the  cultivated  leg- 
umes I  refer  the  reader  to  "Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  of 
America"  by  Hunt.  Prof.  Thos.  Shaw  also  has  an  ex- 
cellent  book  on  clovers,  and  Prof.  H.  Carman  of  the  Ken- 
tucky Experiment  Station  has  an  exceedingly  valuable 
descriptive  bulletin  on  legumes  (No.  98 ).  Within  the 
limits  of  space  assigned  to  this  volume  I  can  give  only  a 
very  superficial  account. 

The  leguminosae  comprise  a  vast  number  of  plants. 
Some  are  tiny  herbs;  some  are  among  the  largest  trees. 
Among  the  common  ones  are  the  peas,  beans,  locust  trees, 
clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soybeans  and  vetches.  It  is  a 
curious  thought  that  all  these  plants  probably  came  from 
one  stock;  the  ancestral  form  of  the  sweetpea,  alfalfa, 
red  clover,  and  locust  trees  is  one  and  the  same.  If  one 
will  look  closely  one  will  indeed  see  that  flowers  of  the 
pea,  the  bean,  the  locust  tree  and  even  of  the  clover  or  al- 
falfa plant  are  very  much  the  same.  There  is  no  other 


134  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

flower  with  a  structure  similar  to  that  of  the  legumes. 
There  is  often  a  similarity  in  seed  as  well ;  the  seeds  are 
usually  in  pods  of  a  peculiar  and  familiar  shape — usually 
like  little  kidneys,  though  some  are  round,  as  the  soybeans. 
If  one  tastes  the  seeds  one  is  astonished  to  find  them  with 
a  good  deal  of  similarity  of  flavor.  I  have  when  a  boy 
sowing  clover  seed  caught  seeds  in  my  mouth  and  chewed 
them,  marveling  that  they  tasted  so  much  like  beans  or 
peas.  Nearly  all  the  legumes  have  more  or  less  showy 
flowers.  Why  is  this  ?  Be  assured  the  brilliant  coloring 
of  the  pea  or  the  clover  is  not  meant  for  your  delectation. 
Things  do  not  happen  in  nature.  There  is  reason  for  all 
of  nature's  processes.  In  the  case  of  the  legumes  it  means 
that  they  can  not  pollinate  their  flowers  unless  they  have 
the  aid  of  insects.  The  insects  find  the  flowers  because 
they  are  showy.  To  reward  the  insects,  or  rather  to  in- 
duce them  to  come  and  do  the  work,  there  is  usually  found 
in  the  flower  a  sweet  nectar,  deliciously  scented.  Some 
blooms,  such  as  alfalfa,  are  most  ingeniously  arranged  so 
that  as  the  insect  crawls  down  the  throat  of  the  flower  it 
touches  a  little  trigger,  the  flower  violently  explodes  and 
the  pollen-bearing  part  is  thrust  vigorously  upward  to 
perform  its  work  of  fertilization.  One  can  imitate  the 
work  of  the  bee  in  the  alfalfa  plant  by  scratching  the 
throat  of  the  opened  flower  with  a  pin  point  or  end  of  a 
grass  blade.  All  of  this  is  most  curious  and  seems  in  di- 
rect refutation  of  any  idea  that  the  world  came  into  ex- 
istence without  a  guiding  intelligence.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  nature  meant  the  legumes  to  be  always  cross- 
fertilized,  though  this  point  is  as  yet  uncertain. 


HOW  LEGUMES  SECURE  NITROGEN.  135 

Acquiring  of  Nitrogen. — Leguminous  plants  have  a 
high  nitrogen  content.  In  the  farmer's  parlance,  they 
make  "rich  feed."  They  are  rich  in  protein.  Protein  is 
the  thing  in  feeds  of  which  the  world  is  most  short.  Leg- 
umes are  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  nitrogen  is  commonly  de- 
ficient in  soils.  Legumes  make  soils  on  which  they  grow 
rich,  particularly  when  they  decay  on  the  land  or  are 
turned  under.  The  farmer  knew  ages  ago  that  clovers, 
alfalfa  and  other  legumes  enriched  soils.  Within  very 
recent  years  men  have  learned  how  this  is  done.  It  seems 
to  be  accomplished  by  means  of  micro-organisms  living 
on  their  rootlets  or  in  nodules  attached  to  their  roots. 
There  is  much  to  learn  about  this  process. 

How  the  Nitrogen  Is  Secured. — There  is  much  to  be 
learned  yet  about  how  this  work  is  done.  So  far  as  we 
now  know  this  is  the  way  of  it:  There  are  probably  a 
number  of  kinds  of  bacteria  inhabiting  leguminous  plants. 
Few  if  any  legumes  are  without  their  own  especial  sort 
of  bacteria,  and  each  sort  produces  on  its  host  plant  a 
nodule  or  tubercle.  One  can  find  these  even  on  locust 
trees,  on  wild  legumes,  on  soybeans,  cowpeas  and  clovers 
of  all  sorts.  Some  men  believe  that  the  bacteria  inhabit- 
ing one  species  will  in  a  little  time  adapt  itself  to  another 
species,  if  that  chances  to  be  planted  on  the  soil  which 
it  inhabits ;  that  is,  if  alfalfa  were  sown  on  land  filled  with 
red  clover-inhabiting  bacteria  within  a  few  months  the 
bacteria  of  red  clover  would  learn  to  grow  on  alfalfa.  My 
own  observation  would  not  at  all  support  this  view. 
True,  certain  bacteria  live  on  a  number  of  related  spe- 
cies. For  example,  the  same  bacteria/so  far  as  we  know, 


136 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 


Roots  of  soy  bean,  showing  nodules. 


BACTERIA  FOR  LEGUMES  137 

inhabit  alfalfa,  melilotus  and  the  bur  clovers.  It  seems 
necessary  to  have  separate  inoculation  for  cowpeas  and 
soybeans,  while  sainfoin,  which  has  nearly  always  been  a 
failure  in  America,  is  probably  a  failure  in  most  instances 
through  lack  of  inoculation.  Red  clover,  alsike  clover 
and  little  white  clover  seem  to  take  the  same  bacteria, 
while  it  is  doubtful  whether  crimson  clover  can  get  along 
without  its  specific  bacteria. 

One  can  tell  "how  it  is  done"  as  easily  as  one  can  de- 
fine the  nature  of  electricity.  What  we  can  see  is  that 
the  bacteria  attack  the  rootlets  which  very  graciously 
build  out  fleshy  coverings  for  them,  "nodules"  or  "tu- 
bercles." These  nodules  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  very 
small  seed  to  the  size  of  a  pea  or  larger.  The  nodules, 
are  full  of  nitrogen  and  inhabited  by  millions  of  bacteria. 
These  bacteria  are  continually  reproducing,  growing,  dy- 
ing, giving  up  their  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and  plants.  The 
bacteria  obtain  their  nitrogen  from  the  air  that  enters  all 
good,  dry,  pervious  soils.  When  you  stop  to  think  of  it, 
nearly  all  leguminous  plants  thrive  best  in  dry  soils  that 
the  air  easily  can  enter. 

How  the  bacteria  get  from  one  part  of  the  soil  to  an- 
other, how  natural  inoculation  takes  place,  we  do  not 
know.  Probably  it  is  done  mainly  by  the  washing  of 
soils  and  perhaps  sometimes  by  the  wind.  Sometimes 
the  bacteria  do  not  come  until  they  are  artificially  intro- 
duced by  man.  In  some  neighborhoods  the  bacteria  of 
alfalfa  are  found  everywhere  and  no  inoculating  is  need- 
ed; in  other  neighborhoods,  alfalfa  seeding  is  a  failure 
unless  the  proper  bacteria  are  introduced. 


138  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

Methods  of  Inoculation. — The  bacteria  are  readily 
enough  grown  in  cultures,  and  these  cultures  may  be  sent 
in  liquid  form  to  the  man  sowing  seed  of  new  legumes 
on  soil  needing  inoculation.  The  liquid  culture  is  diluted 
with  additional  water  and  the  seed  wet  and  sown.  This 
has  usually  been  found  effective.  Dry  cultures  are  not 
often  successful.  The  drying  of  the  organism  seems 
usually  to  deprive  it  of  its  vitality.  Soil  may  be  taken 
from  a  field  where  the  legume  grew  and  developed  tuber- 
cles. This  soil  may  be  scattered  over  the  new  field  and 
at  once  harrowed  in  to  prevent  the  bacteria  drying  and  be- 
ing killed  by  sunlight.  This  method  has  given  better  re- 
sults thus  far  than  any  other.  There  are  several  ways 
of  using  this  method  of  soil  inoculation.  If  one  is  inocu- 
lating a  field  near  another  field  that  has  already  good  in- 
oculation one  can  take  earth  and  spread  it  with  the  ma- 
nure spreader.  This  is  the  best  method  where  soil  is  in 
abundant  supply.  Follow  the  spreader  close  with  some 
efficient  harrow  that  will  cover  the  soil  from  sunlight. 
It  seems  that  either  sunlight  or  drying  will  usually  de- 
stroy the  bacteria.  It  is  well,  then,  when  it  can  be  done, 
to  apply  the  soil  after  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  and  at 
once  follow  with  the  harrow,  stirring  it  into  the  soil. 
Where  soil  is  harder  to  secure  one  may  sow  a  very  small 
amount  and  yet  get  inoculation,  if  only  it  is  well  spread 
and  carefully  covered.  '  Often  in  sowing  alfalfa  seed  I 
have  directed  the  use  of  100  pounds  of  soil  mixed  with  20 
pounds  of  seed,  the  two  sown  together.  This  has  given 
good  inoculation.  Or,  one  may  make  one's  soil  fine  by 
sifting,  wet  the  seed  and  mix  with  it  soon  after  wetting 


CLOVERS    NEED   INOCULATION  139 

just  enough  soil  to  make  it  so  that  it  can  be  sowed  again. 
This  gives  good  inoculation.    Or  again,  one  may  simply 
leach  water  through  infected  soil  and  apply  the  water  to" 
the  seed.    This  method  is  said  to  have  been  successfully 
used  at  the  New  Jersey  station. 

Curiously  enough,  when  stable  manure  has  been  applied 
liberally  to  soils,  they  are  often  found  inoculated  with  bac- 
teria belonging  to  certain  clovers  that  may  never  have 
been  grown  there,  and  none  of  the  substance  of  which  had 
been  applied  to  the  manure.  For  example,  alfalfa  sown 
on  manured  land  seldom  needs  any  additional  inoculation 
to  cause  it  to  be  covered  with  nodules;  whereas  on  land 
adjoining  none  could  be  seen.  This  has  been  frequently 
observed  even  when  no  alfalfa  hay  had  ever  been  fed  in 
the  barn  whence  the  manure  came,  and  is  a  mystery  yet 
to  be  cleared  up. 

Clovers  Needing  Inoculation. — -Crimson  clover  seldom 
thrives  except  when  inoculated,  and  inoculation  is  by  no 
means  common  in  the  South  until  the  clover  has  been 
grown  for  several  years.  The  fact  that  it  grows  up  so 
slenderly  when  not  inoculated  has  caused  many  experi- 
menters in  the  South  to  discard  this  very  valuable  winter- 
growing  plant.  I  have  observed  in  Tennessee  that  inocu- 
lated plants  made  more  than  10  times  the  growth  that 
non-inoculated  plants  made  close  by.  If  one  wishes  to 
grow  crimson  clover  in  a  new  region  of  the  South  one 
should  inoculate  at  least  a  small  area,  whence  later  earth 
could  be  taken  for  inoculating  larger  areas.  An  acre  will 
inoculate  a  county,  the  earth  rightly  used.  A  flower-bed 
of  crimson  clover  in  the  garden  may  be  the  source  of  soil 


140  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

for  a  needy  field.  Bur  clovers  need  inoculation  on  many 
soils,  especially  those  away  from  the  limestone  and  river 
bottoms.  Alfalfa  quite  generally  needs  inoculation  in 
eastern  and  southern  soils.  For  some  unexplained  rea- 
son alfalfa  on  alluvial  land  commonly  needs  no  inocula- 
tion. This  is  true  of  the  land  along  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri  Rivers.  Whence  came  the  bacteria  there?  It 
is  a  curious  thought.  Alfalfa  needs  no  inoculation  any- 
where west  of  the  Missouri  River,  so  far  as  I  have  seen. 
Doubtless  there  are  soils  where  it  does  not  early  find  the 
right  bacteria,  but  the  other  conditions  are  so  favorable 
that  it  manages  to  get  along  till  the  bacteria  arrives — 
whence,  we  do  not  know.  In  the  East  it  would  die  await- 
ing its  allies.  Along  the  Pacific  Coast  in  Oregon  and 
Washington  I  think  inoculation  is  often  useful  for  alfalfa. 
This  is  the  verdict  of  many  growers  in  that  region. 

Vetches  need  inoculation  on  many,  if  not  most,  soils. 
Without  inoculation  the  growth  is  very  small  and  poor. 
With  it  there  may  easily  be  a  hundred  times  the  weight 
of  plant  that  would  be  seen  otherwise.  If  one  sows 
vetches  on  land  unused  to  them  and  gets  only  a  few 
thrifty  plants  one  should  sow  again  the  following  year 
and  maybe  then  one  will  find  the  inoculation  good. 

Soybeans  need  inoculation  nearly  everywhere.  One 
can  either  secure  earth  which  when  powdered  one  can  sift 
over  and  mix  through  the  seed,  or  sow  earth  over  the  land 
as  one  would  for  alfalfa,  mixing  it  in  promptly.  The  sec- 
ond year  of  soybeans  usually  sees  good  inoculation,  often 
when  no  artificial  means  have  been  used.  Curiously 
enough  the  varieties  vary  in  their  ease  of  inoculation. 


CONDITIONS    FAVORING   BACTERIA  141 

some  vigorous  sorts  taking  it  much  more  rapidly  than 
others  of  the  more  moderate-growing  kinds. 

All  New  Legumes  May  Need  Inoculation. — I  once  tried 
to  grow  gorse  plants  in  Ohio.  Gorse  is  a  common  shrub 
in  Europe,  bearing  a  yellow,  pea-shaped  bloom.  Though 
in  good  soil,  still  they  refused  to  grow,  probably  because 
I  had  neglected  to  bring  their  peculiar  bacteria  with  the 
seed.  Whenever  one  is  establishing  clovers,  cowpeas,  soy- 
beans or  any  new  legumes,  one  is  wise  if  he  finds  some 
source  of  infected  soil  to  start  the  bacteria  at  work.  The 
little  white  clover  is  the  one  thing  spread  by  nature  from 
northern  Canada  to  the  Gulf,  which  has  always  its  bac- 
teria with  it.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  inoculation 
usually  helps.  I  have  growing  in  good  garden  soil,  plants 
of  Cassia  occidentalis,  a  common  leguminous  plant  of 
Louisiana,  there  called  "coffee  weed."  It  will  grow  there 
nearly  6  inches  a  day  and  has  nodules  as  large  as  peas 
thickly  studded  on  its  roots.  Here,  on  rich  soil  and  dur- 
ing weather  as  hot  as  Louisiana  often  sees,  the  growth 
without  nodules  is  no  more  than  2  inches  in  a  week. 

Conditions  Favoring  Bacteria. — Good  agriculture  is  es- 
sentially practice  that  favors  helpful  bacteria.  When  con- 
ditions are  right  for  them  they  are  steadily  gathering 
nitrogen  from  the  air,  adding  it  to  the  soil,  and  it  is  then 
taken  up  by  plants.  Experiment  has  shown  that  there 
may  be  gathered  by  the  legumes  very  great  amounts  of 
atmospheric  nitrogen,  as  much  in  one  year  as  would  cost, 
were  one  to  buy  it,  $30  or  more,  on  one  acre.  Thus, 
when  legumes  thrive,  when  the  soil  conditions  are  right 
for  them  and  the  bacteria  are  abundant  and  active,  one 


142  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

may  see  the  soil  become  richer  and  richer  year  by  year. 
Even  when  the  legumes  are  each  year  removed  from  the 
land  the  soil  may  accumulate  nitrogen.  Hunt  gives  an 
instance  of  a  soil  area  at  Lupitz  which  bore  28  successive 
crops  of  lupines  which  were  removed  and  nothing  sup- 
plied but  kainit.  Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  removed  from  the  field  it  was  found  to  make 
a  steady  gain  in  soil  nitrogen.  The  conditions  that  favor 
the  useful  bacteria  are  that  the  land  shall  be  moist  but 
not  wet,  shall  have  air  entering  it  somewhat  freely,  and 
shall  be  alkaline,  not  acid,  in  its  reaction.  The  presence 
of  a  considerable  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil 
is  very  favorable  to  these  nitrifying  bacteria.  It  is  clear 
that  they  can  do  nothing  in  a  waterlogged  soil,  since  it 
has  in  it  no  air.  It  has  been  abundantly  proved  that  sour 
soils  are  unfriendly  to  legumes  and  unfriendly  to  their 
allies,  the  bacteria.  Indeed  it  may  be  true  that  the  one 
reason  why  sour  soils  are  unfriendly  to  legumes  is  that 
the  bacteria  will  not  increase  there. 

Carbonate  of  Lime  and  Legume  Growing. — It  is  very 
noticeable  that  in  regions  with  much  carbonate  of  lime  in 
the  soil  wild  legumes  are  abundant.  In  the  semi-arid  re- 
gions, where  soils  are  usually  rich  in  lime — because  it  has 
never  been  leached  away,  one  often  finds  a  great  number 
of  species  of  legumes.  Such  soils  are  so  well  filled  with 
many  kinds  of  bacteria  that  few  legumes  growing  on 
them  need  inoculation  in  order  to  start  out  vigorously  as 
soon  as  sown.  In  other  soils,  where  lime  is  wanted,  one 
finds  few  or  no  legumes  at  all.  I  was  recently  engaged 
in  studying  certain  mountain  soils  in  California  and  dur- 


CARBONATE    OF    LIME    FOR    SOILS  143 

ing  several  days'  riding  I  saw  hardly  any  leguminous 
plants.  Analysis  of  that  soil  showed  me  what  I  expected 
to  find,  that  it  was  most  markedly  deficient  in  carbonate 
of  lime.  At  the  same  time  it  is  so  markedly  unproductive 
that  no  successful  efforts  have  been  made  to  grow  on  it 
grain  or  gardens  without  manures.  On  other  soils  in 
similar  location  and  altitudes  where  much  carbonate  of 
lime  was  found  in  the  soil,  the  number  of  wild  peas, 
vetches,  lupines  and  other  leguminous  plants  was  aston- 
ishing, and  when  that  soil  was  plowed  its  fertility  was 
found  to  be  very  great.  It  is  the  truest  thing  in  nature 
that  legumes  make  soil  rich  and  carbonate  of  lime  makes 
legumes  grow  thriftily.  This  lesson  has  long  been  under- 
stood in  the  Old  World.  There  since  the  history  of  agri- 
culture was  first  written  lime  has  been  used  as  a  soil- 
corrective  to  make  it  produce  legumes  so  that  it  may 
gather  riches  and  feed  man.  Indeed,  the  fathers  did  better 
than  the  sons  are  doing  today,  for  the.  increased  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  has  to  some  extent  displaced  lime, 
and  the  result  has  in  many  instances  been  evil.  I  have 
seen  land  in  Scotland  reclaimed  from  barren  heaths  in 
the  following  manner :  First,  deep  drains  to  lead  away 
the  surplus  moisture,  then  the  use  of  "20  cartloads  of 
lime"  to  the  acre  (unburned  marl  or  chalk,  I  think,  was 
used),  afterward  good  plowing,  then  a  moderate  amount 
of  manure,  and  seeding  to  grasses  and  clovers.  Thus 
were  meadows  established  where  nothing  but  wild  heaths 
had  grown  before,  and  on  these  meadows  sheep  were  fed, 
phosphorus  sprinkled  from  time  to  time  with  manure,  till 
at  last  a  very  rich,  productive  soil  was  gained,  almost 


144  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

unbelievable  in  its  contrast  to  the  barren,  heath-covered 
soil  only  across  the  wall. 

Most  plants  crave  nitrogen;  men  work  for  it;  women 
and  children  starve  and  die  for  it  by  thousands  every 
year,  while  nitrogen  exists  in  unstable  compounds,  and 
if  we  do  not  use  care  it  is  soon  gone  from  us.  Infertile 
soils  are  nearly  always  nitrogen-hungry.  With  enough 
nitrogen  in  our  soils  we  could  easily  support  two  blades 
of  grass  where  one  grows  now,  with  all  that  that  implies 
in  added  comfort  for  greater  numbers  of  men  and  women 
in  the  world. 

Air  and  Our  Nitrogen  Supply. — There  are  few  spots 
on  the  world  where  nitrogen  is  found  in  such  combina- 
tions that  it  can  be  mined  and  used.  Over  each  acre  of 
soil  there  exists  about  75  million  pounds  of  atmospheric 
nitrogen.  The  one  way  that  we  can  get  it  changed  into 
form  that  we  can  use  is  by  means  of  the  bacteria  in  the 
soil.  True,  the  electrician  with  command  of  tremendous 
electric  power,  can  secure  nitrogen  compounds  that  the 
farmer  may  use,  and  this  is  being  done  in  a  small  way  in 
Norway  and  elsewhere,  but  the  farmer  may  have  on  his 
own  place  a  complete  establishment  for  nitrogen-gather- 
ing that  will  work  silently  and  surely,  day  and  night  dur- 
ing the  growing  season.  In  order  to  have  this,  however, 
he  must  first  store  in  his  soil  a  supply  of  carbonate  of 
lime.  It  is  true,  then,  that  adding  carbonate  of  lime  to 
a  lime  hungry  soil,  and  then  planting  it  to  legumes,  is  as 
though  one  added  nitrate  of  soda  to  the  land.  Nitrate  of 
soda  will  do  wonders  in  making  crops  grow,  but  it  is 
costly  to  buy.  When  one  grows  clovers,  cowpeas,  vetches. 


IMPROVING    SOILS    WITH  LEGUMES  145 

alfalfa,  or  any  other  nitrogen-gathering  legume  accom- 
panied by  its  particular  form  of  bacteria,  in  a  soil  favor- 
ing the  bacterial  life  on  the  legumes,  one  is  indeed  in- 
creasing one's  nitrogen  store  very  fast. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  gathered  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  sort  of  plant  grown,  and  then  according  as 
the  soil  is  fitted  to  make  large  growth  of  legumes.  That 
is,  in  order  to  help  plants  in  their  work  of  nitrogen  gath- 
ering, one  should  make  the  conditions  as  favorable  as 
possible  in  all  things  except  supplying  nitrogen.  The 
plant  that  comes  to  a  soil  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime,  rich 
in  phosphorus  and  potassium,  with  air  enough  in  it 
and  moisture  enough,  will  gather  a  great  deal  more 
nitrogen  than  one  growing  in  a  soil  where  any  of  these 
factors  are  lacking.  So  if  one  wishes  to  enrich  soil  by 
growing  on  it  cowpeas,  clover,  or  any  legume,  one 
should  begin  by  making  it  dry,  by  plowing  well,  and 
then  supplying  what  phosphorus  may  be  needed.  Thus 
strengthened,  the  plants  will  gather  very  much  more  nitro- 
gen than  if  they  struggled  to  grow  in  a  soil  inhospitable 
because  waterlogged,  hard  or  poor  in  phosphorus  or  pos- 
sibly in  potassium. 

Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins,  experimenting  with  alfalfa  (one 
of  the  most  energetic  gatherers  of  nitrogen)  tested  plots 
with  inoculation  against  plots  without,  assuming  that 
the  uninoculated  plots  got  all  their  nitrogen  from  the 
soil.  He  found  that  alfalfa,  when  supplied  with  lime 
and  phosphorus,  gathered  about  252  pounds  of  nitrogen 
per  acre,  worth  15  cents  a  pound,  or  $37.80.  In  con- 
trast a  plot  having  no  inoculation,  and  neither  lime  nor 


146  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

phosphorus  applied,  made  about  one-third  the  total  yield, 
and,  unless  bacteria  found  their  way  in  unaided  by  man, 
gathered  none  of  its  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  plain 
fact  is  that  one  can  afford  well  to  make  the  conditions  so 
that  the  bacteria  will  gather  nitrogen.  Indeed  one  can  not 
afford  to  farm  in  any  other  manner. 

Humus  Aids  Nitrifying  Bacteria. — It  is  noticeable  that 
where  there  is  much  vegetable  matter  added  to  the  soil, 
legumes  thrive  especially  well,  and  by  aid  of  their  bacteria 
gather  especially  large  amounts  of  nitrogen.  Some  leg- 
umes seem  more  dependent  on  the  aid  of  humus  than 
other.  Cowpeas,  for  example,  will  grow  where  there  is  a 
rather  small  amount  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  while 
red  clover  enjoys  a  plentiful  supply.  The  lesson  is  clear.  If 
you  would  build  soils  by  aid  of  legumes  do  all  that  you 
can  first  to  help  them.  Make  the  soil  alkaline  rather  than 
acid  by  adding  to  it  carbonate  of  lime,  feed  it  with  phos- 
phorus, give  it  what  humus  you  can,  and  see  that  it  is  sup- 
plied with  the  right  sort  of  bacteria.  Nature  may  attend 
to  this  duty,  but,  in  case  she  has  forgotten,  do  your  part. 
Of  all  the  steps  needed  to  make  legumes  grow  and  thrive 
one  can  afford  to  neglect  not  one. 

The  Purpose  of  Legumes. — There  seems  in  nature  an 
orderly  arrangement  of  things  dependent  on  one  another. 
For  example,  legumes  store  the  earth  with  nitrogen. 
Grasses  feed  freely  on  nitrogen  and  grow  rank  when  so 
fed.  Thus,  after  clovers  have  made  the  land  rich,  grasses 
come  with  riotous  strength  and  perchance  crowd  out  the 
clovers.  Afterward,  when  the  grasses  have  depleted  the 
soil  of  nitrogen,  the  clovers  find  foothold  again.  This  is 


NITROGEN-GATHERING    BACTERIA.  147 

nature's  rotation  of  crops.  The  legumes  exist,  their  bac- 
teria store  the  priceless  nitrogen,  the  earth  is  enriched 
thereby,  and  all  manner  of  pleasant  grains  and  grasses 
and  fruits  follow,  feeding  on  this  store  of  nitrogen  gath- 
ered mainly  by  the  legumes  and  their  allies,  the  bacteria. 

Other  Nitrogen-Gathering  Bacteria. — There  seem 
other  bacteria,  not  inhabiting  legumes,  that  can  in  some 
manner  store  nitrogen.  These  are  found  in  soils  fairly 
well  filled  with  vegetable  matter.  In  old  pasture  sods  are 
found  the  azotobacter  bacteria,  most  beneficent  organisms, 
storing  fertility  as  they  live  on  decaying  leaves,  roots  and 
stems.  There  seem  no  helpful  bacteria  in  any  soils  devoid 
of  humus  or  legumes. 

Lessons  that  All  May  Read. — See  that  field  of  oats  with 
the  sharply-outlined  line  of  dark,  rich  green?  On  the 
part  growing  so  rankly  stood  alfalfa  or  clover.  The 
chances  are  there  is  now  too  much  nitrogen  there  for  the 
oats,  and  they  will  likely  lodge.  Corn  should  have  been 
planted  instead ;  it  stands  stiff  no  matter  how  big  it  grows 
and  no  soils  are  too  rich  for  it.  In  California  on  alfalfa 
fields,  orchards  and  orange  groves  have  shown  the  effect 
of  having  been  planted  on  alfalfa  fields  years  after  the 
alfalfa  roots  had  crumbled  to  mould. 

Value  of  Legumes. — Chemical  analysis  shows  legumin- 
ous plants  to  be  rich  in  protein.  Protein  makes  red  flesh, 
blood,  milk  and  brain  tissue.  Most  feed-stuffs  are  poor 
in  protein ;  legumes  come  in  to  balance  the  excess  of  car- 
bohydrates in  the  grasses  and  grains.  Thus  timothy  hay 
is  too  poor  in  bone  and  muscle-making  material,  properly 
to  nourish  animals;  a  portion  of  clover  or  alfalfa  mixed 


148  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

through  it  makes  it  a  more  nearly  perfect  feed.  In 
America  our  most  common  grain,  corn,  has  in  it  too  much 
starch  and  not  enough  protein  for  feed.  If  one  has  then 
at  hand  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  one  can  make  .a  proper  bal- 
ance in  rations  for  stock.  Animals  are  quite  largely  what 
they  are  fed  on.  Thus  ponies  come  from  poor,  barren, 
sour  soils  having  no  legumes  and  only  poor  grasses ;  splen- 
did horses  come  from  pastures  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime 
and  growing  mixtures  of  grasses  and  clovers  of  several 
species.  The  horses  raised  on  alfalfa  meadows  in  Cali- 
fornia are  among  the  most  perfectly  developed  in  the 
world;  the  horses  of  bluegrass  Kentucky  eat  a  fine  mix- 
ture of  bluegrass  and  white  and  red  clover. 

Legumes  and  Grasses  Go  Together. — While  it  is  true 
that  grasses  alone  are  commonly  deficient  in  that  essential 
builder,  protein,  yet  it  is  also  true  that  the  legumes  are 
commonly  too  rich  in  protein  and  an  excess  of  even  a 
good  thing  may  be  nearly  as  harmful  as  a  deficiency. 
Thus  animals  bloat  on  alfalfa  pasture  and  horses  fed  ex- 
clusively and  heavily  on  alfalfa  hay  may  become  "soft," 
that  is,  not  enduring,  through  fatigue  caused  by  an  excess 
of  the  very  thing  in  their  blood  that  would  build  if  fed 
only  in  right  amount.  So  it  is  true  that  animals  graz- 
ing clovers  or  alfalfa  are  ravenously  hungry  for  grass 
and  if  allowed  access  to  it  or  if  grass  is  grown  mixed 
with  the  clover  or  alfalfa  they  will  not  often  bloat.  Like- 
wise animals  pastured  on  grass  are  ravenous  for  clover 
or  alfalfa,  nature  seeming  to  teach  them  what  should  be 
their  diet  properly  to  nourish  the  whole  animal.  Diversi- 
fication is  good  for  soils  as  variety  for  stock. 


THE   CLOVER  FAMILY  149 

Effect  of  Legumes  on  the  Soil. — I  have  never  seen  a 
legume  that  did  not  leave  land  better  than  it  found  it. 
Clovers  penetrate  deep  with  their  roots  and  decaying  leave 
channels  for  both  air  and  moisture.  Alfalfa  is  even  more 
vigorous  in  such  work.  Vetches  leave  the  soil  loose  and 
permeable.  There  is  indeed  a  curious  effect  on  the  soil 
of  the  growing  of  legumes  difficult  to  explain — the  effect 
in  making  clays  friable  and  hard  soils  mellow.  The  ef- 
fect on  the  succeeding  crop  is  indeed  marvelous,  especially 
if  the  whole  forage  of  the  legume  is  turned  under  or  fed 
off  on  the  land  by  animals. 

Legumes  May  Not  Enrich  Soils. — Mooers  has  shown 
at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station  that  cowpeas  grown 
in  rotation  with  wheat,  the  peas  cut  and  carried  away 
from  the  land,  apparently  reduced  fertility  instead  of  in- 
creasing it.  Probably  the  peas  drew  heavily  on  the  soil's 
store  of  phosphorus  or  else  drew  so  heavily  on  the  mois- 
ture of  the  soil  that  the  wheat  following  it  secured  a  poor 
start  in  the  fall.  Assuredly  if  the  mineral  requirements 
of  a  soil  are  not  given  attention  the  taking  away  of  crops 
of  legumes  may  end  in  a  depleted  and  unproductive  soil. 

THE  CLOVERS. 

The  very  sound  of  the  word  "clover"  suggests  fields 
of  sweet-smelling  bloom,  bees,  birds  and  sunshine.  Take 
away  the  first  letter  and  you  have  left  "lover,"  the  best 
estate  ever  achieved  by  man,  and  decapitate  the  word 
again  and  you  have  left  "love,"  the  mainspring  of  action 
in  all  that  is  best  in  the  world.  There  are  many  species 
and  varieties  of  clover.  Curious  readers  should  read  the 


150  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

chapter  on  varieties  in  Hunt's  "Forage  and  Fiber  Crops" 
where  30  species  are  listed  and  we  are  assured  that  250 
species  exist.  Since  that  book  was  written  several  new 
ones  have  been  introduced  from  the  Old  World.  We 
have  not  time  here  even  to  list  them,  but  must  content 
ourselves  with  describing  those  that  are  most  commonly 
seen.  One  may  know  the  clovers  by  their  having  leaflets 
in  threes  and  each  one  attached  at  the  main  point,  whereas 
in  alfalfa  and  other  plants  belonging  to  the  family  of 
Medicagos  the  leaflets  are  differently  arranged,  with  the 
two  leaflets  set  down  the  mid  stem  a  little  way. 

White  Clover  or  Dutch  Clover. — I  sit  to  write  this  be- 
neath an  oak  tree  on  the  lawn  and  all  about  me  is  the 
green  carpet  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  little  white  clover 
(Trifolium  repens).  I  choose  this  little  clover  to  head  the 
list  because  it  seems  the  most  universally  found  of  any  of 
the  clovers.  I  have  seen  it  in  every  land  that  I  have  ever 
visited  except  in  the  burning  deserts,  and  even  there  it 
comes  soon  after  man  has  begun  to  pour  cooling  streams 
of  water  over  the  thirsty  soil.  White  clover  seed  is  very 
small  and  easily  carried ;  it  is  probably  not  digested  when 
eaten  by  animals  and  thus  the  animals  themselves  in  their 
journeying  have  taken  it  about.  While  white  clover  is 
found  nearly  over  all  America,  yet  I  think  it  must  be  an 
introduced  species  since  had  it  been  truly  native  to 
America  it  should  have  been  found  on  the  prairies  when 
white  men  first  saw  them,  and  there  is  no  record  of  this. 

White  clover  is  a  creeping  plant,  seldom  rising  more 
than  i'  high,  but  making  a  dense  mat  of  herbage  over  the 
ground.  The  stems  lying  on  the  earth  root  freely  after 


CLOVERS  IN   PASTURES 


151 


the  manner  of  strawberry  runners  and  thus  it  rapidly 
covers  the  land  when  there  is  space  for  it  and  conditions 
are  good.  The  flower  stems  may  rise  up  12"  or  more 
and  sometimes  are  so  thick  as  to  make  the  field  one  mass 
of  bloom.  There  is  a  large  species  of  white  clover  from 
Italy,  called  giant  broad-leaved  white  clover.  It  is  said 
to  produce  twice  the  herbage  of  the  common  sort,  but  to 
make  few  seeds.  White  clover  likes  rich  soil  and  abund- 


White  Clover  May  12  in  Tennessee, 

ant  lime  in  it.  It  thrives  in  moist  soil  and  during  cool 
weather.  In  the  north  it  is  green  all  summer ;  in  the  south 
it  nearly  disappears  during  hot  weather  and  reappears  in 
the  fall,  remaining  green  and  beautiful  all  winter.  Thus 
it  grows  well  with  Bermuda  grass.  The  amount  of  white 
clover  in  the  pasture  is  a  fair  indication  of  its  fertility  of 
soil.  One  can  bring  it  in  by  liming  and  dressing  the 
land  with  phosphorus.  Wood  ashes,  too,  have  a  great 


152  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

effect  in  bringing  in  white  clover.  In  Maryland  on  very 
poor  sands  I  have  seen  strips  of  white  clover  along  the 
shell  roads  where  the  wheels  had  powdered  the  shells  into 
dust  and  it  had  washed  into  the  soil.  Bees  love  white 
clover,  as  also  do  pigs,  fowls  and  all  grazing  animals.  It 
is  richer  than  the  larger-growing  clovers  and  makes  dur- 
ing the  season  a  large  amount  of  grazing.  It  is  not  of 
much  value  for  mowing.  The  one  objection  to  white 
clover  is  that  after  seed  forms  it  sometimes  causes  horses 
to  drip  a  large  amount  of  saliva  or  "slobber."  They 
should  for  a  short  time  be  taken  off  white  clover  pasture. 
It  seldom  bloats  cattle  or  sheep,  as  other  clovers  do,  per- 
haps because  it  is  nearly  always  intermixed  with  grasses. 
I  should  add  white  clover  to  nearly  every  pasture  mix- 
ture. Men  often  ask,  "Why  sow  white  clover — it  comes 
of  itself?"  The  truth  is  it  comes  much  more  abundantly 
and  sooner,  as  a  rule,  when  a  little  seed  is  sown. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Soiv. — The  seed  is  small  and  2 
pounds  will  go  well  over  an  acre,  so  the  expense  of  sow- 
ing is  slight.  It  seems  to  be  easily  established,  sown 
either  very  early  in  spring  or,  in  the  South,  in  fall.  The 
seed  may  lie  dormant  for  years  if  buried  too  deeply  in 
the  soil,  growing  after  being  raised  near  enough  to  the 
surface  so  that  it  can  reach  daylight— an  example  of 
the  wonderful  intelligence  of  nature. 

Red  Clover  (Trifolium  pratense) .— This  is  the  most 
common  sort  of  cultivated  clover  in  America,  and  the  one 
of  which  most  has  been  said  and  written.  There  are  two 
species,  the  common  red  and  mammoth  (Trifolium  pra- 
tense  perenne).  There  seems  all  sorts  of  intermediate 


MAMMOTH  AND  RED   CLOVERS 


153 


forms  between  these.  If  the  man  exists  who  can  surely 
know  mammoth  clover  from  plants,  of  red  clover  I  wish 
introduction  to  him.  In  a  seedling  nursery  of  several 
thousand  clover  plants  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Sta- 


Common  Red  Clover. 

tion  Prof.  Mooers  and  I  tried  vainly  to  arrive  at  any  con- 
clusion? as  to  characteristic  shape  of  leaf  or  habit  of 
growth  that  would  distinguish  the  species.  The  plain 
truth  is  that  red  clover  is  extremely  variable  in  habit  of 
growth  and  character,  and  one  could  with  little  difficulty 


154  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

select  and  propagate  a  hundred  varieties  of  it.  Many  of 
these  varieties  would  be  superior,  too,  to  the  common 
assortment  that  one  gets  in  commercial  seed.  Plants  will 
be  found  having  a  weak  stem,  lying  almost  as  prone  on 
the  earth  as  white  clover;  others  that  stand  erect;  some 
very  leafy;  some  with  leaves  of  one  shape  and  some  with 
another  sort.  Time  of  blooming  and  color  and  shape  of 
bloom  vary  also  and,  unfortunately,  some  of  the  best 
varieties  are  poor  seed  producers.  There  is  also  a:  white- 
blooming  variety;  it  is  strange  that  some  one  does  not: 
propagate  it,  as  it  seems  to  be  fully  as  desirable  in  man- 
ner of  growth  as  the  red.  In  my  opinion  there  are  not 
really  two  species  of  red  clover,  common  and  mammoth, 
the  so-called  "mammoth"  being  a  later-blooming  form 
of  the  common  red,  and  a  larger-growing  variety. 

Red  clover  is  commonly  classed  as  a  biennial,  living  two 
years,  ripening  seed  the  second  year  and  dying.  It  is 
very  loosely  and  irregularly  a  biennial.  Sometimes  plants 
will  ripen  seed  the  year  they  are  sown,  and  sometimes 
the  conditions  will  be  such  that  a  field  will  mostly  bloom 
and  seed  the  first  year.  Many  of  the  plants  will  then 
die,  as  seed-bearing  is  the  function  for  which  clover  lives ; 
others  will  live  another  year  in  weakened  condition.  Most 
often  clover  blooms  but  little  the  first  year,  but  heavily  the 
second  year,  forming  seed  and  most  of  the  plants  dying. 
Always  a  few  plants  will  survive  for  three  or  more  years, 
but  after  bearing  seed  they  do  not  seem  very  vigorous  or 
useful.  It  is  safe  then  to  call  red  clover  a  biennial. 

Habit  of  Growth  of  Red  Clover. — Red  clover  sends 
clown  a  strong  tap  root,  sometimes  to  a  distance  of  several 


RED   CLOVER   INOCULATION  15$ 

feet  into -the  earth,  and,  branching,  fills  the  upper  soil 
pretty  full  of  fibrous  roots.  The  roots  are  well  covered 
with  nodules  inhabited  by  nitrogen-securing  bacteria. 
Most  of  the  roots  of  this  clover  are  found  in  the  upper 
layers  of  soil.  The  top  branches  and  many  stems  are  sent 
from  one  root ;  vigorous  plants  in  favoring  soil  may  send 
up  as  many  as  40  or  more  stems.  If  the  soil  and  season 
favor,  red  clover  makes  a  very  dense  mat  over  the  earth, 
quite  effectually  smothering  out  weeds  and  perhaps  favor- 
ing the  accumulation  of  nitrogen  by  its  very  shade. 

The  nodules  on  red  clover  roots  are  much  more  easily 
found  than  on  alfalfa  and  some  other  legumes,  since  they 
are  more  firmly  attached  and  on  larger  roots.  There  are 
now  few  soils  that  are  not  inoculated  with  red  clover 
bacteria,  though  once  on  prairie  lands  of  Illinois,  Iowa 
and  other  western  states  red  clover  repeatedly  failed  till 
finally  by  natural  causes  inoculation  came.  Red  clover  is 
grown  everywhere  throughout  eastern  America  and 
westward  till  it  meets  alfalfa  in  middle  Kansas  and 
Nebraska.  It  is  found  in  use  along  the  seacoast  in  north- 
ern California  and  the  states  above.  It  is  a  lover  of  tem- 
perate climes,  and  in  the  South,  while  it  will  grow  and 
yield  fairly  well,  it  is  inferior  to  crimson  clover  as  a 
winter-growing  plant,  and  to  alfalfa  in  summer.  There 
are  regions  where  red  clover  is  supplanted  by  alsike  clover. 
There  are  two  causes  that  may  make  alsike  clover  more 
vigorous:  one  is  a  lack  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil 
and  the  other  the  bacterial  disease  of  red  clover  found 
in  Tennessee  and  parts  of  Kentucky.  The  systematic 
rotation  of  crops  corrects  many  soil  troubles. 


156  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

The  Soil  That  Red  Clover  Likes. — One  can  form  a 
good  idea  of  soil  by  the  way  red  clover  thrives  on  it.  If 
the  clover  is  small,  slender,  easily  displaced  by  weeds  and 
grasses,  the  soil  needs  something.  Perhaps  the  need  is 
carbonate  of  lime;  in  fact,  10  chances  to  one  it  needs 
that  since  lime  soils  will  grow  healthy,  vigorous  clover 
even  if  it  is  small.  Maybe  the  land  needs  draining  or 
needs  phosphorus,  less  often  potassium  or  vegetable  mat- 
ter. Any  one  of  these  lacks  may  be  fatal  to  good  clover 
growth.  A  soil  well  underdrained,  strongly  calcareous, 
and  with  enough  phosphorus  and  a  dash  of  vegetable 
matter  thrown  in,  produces  red  clover  in  splendid  vigor. 
Wood  ashes  make  red  clover  grow.  On  many  areas  that 
now  produce  it  only  sparingly,  applications  of  lime  make 
conditions  right  and  it  succeeds  well.  It  is  the  basal 
truth  that  legumes  love  lime  because  alkaline  earths  favor 
their  nourishing  bacteria. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Red  clover  seed  is  commonly 
fairly  free  from  adulterants,  especially  when  one  selects 
a  seedman  with  some  care.  True,  there  are  innumerable 
weed  seeds  found  in  poorly  cleaned  red  clover  seed,  but 
most  of  these  can  be  cleaned  out  by  use  of  proper  ma- 
chinery. The  various  sorts  of  plantain  are  the  most  com- 
mon weed  seeds  found,  and  they  make  very  bad  pests  in 
new  cloverfields.  Clover  dodder  is  found  sometimes  and 
is  a  deadly  weed.  A  farmer  who  would  cut  for  seed  a 
field  infested  with  dodder  must  have  something  wrong 
with  his  moral  faculties.  Occasionally  clover  seed  is  in- 
tentionally adulterated  by  seedsmen.  Among  the  things 
put  in  have  been  alfalfa  and  the  little  trefoils.  Alfalfa 


SEEDING    RED    CLOVER  157 

seed  is  usually  dearer  than  red  clover  seed,  so  there  is  not 
often  danger  of  its  use  in  this  way  and  one  could  not 
desire;  a  more  harmless  substitute  if  such  one  must  have. 
Commonly  red  clover  is  sown  in  rotation  after  wheat. 
The  usual  plan  is  to  sow  timothy  in  the  fall,  following 
with  red  clover  in  March,  February  or  April.  Probably 
99  per  cent  of  the  red  clover  sown  in  America  is  sown 
broadcast  in  the  spring  over  fields  of  wheat,  with  no  other 
effort  than  scattering  the  seed. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — Usually  10  pounds  of  seed 
are  sown  on  an  acre.  When  conditions  are  right  this 
plan  succeeds  well.  If  the  frost  loosens  the  soil  or  the 
rain  beats  down  and  covers  the  seed,  if  the  soil  is  fertile 
and  well  drained,  inoculated  with  the  right  bacteria  and 
with  enough  lime  in  it,  if  the  wheat  and  timothy  are  not 
too  rank-growing,  a  stand  of  clover  will  be  secured.  In 
my  boyhood  days  we  secured  wonderful  growths  of 
clover,  but  then  our  lands  were  newer  and  richer,  with 
more  phosphorus  and  humus  in  them.  Today  there  is 
greater  difficulty  in  getting  stands  of  clover  in  this  easy, 
hap-hazard  manner.  A  better  plan  is  to  wait  till  the 
ground  is  dry  enough  to  harrow,  say  in  late  March  or 
early  April,  depending  on  latitude  and  climatic  conditions ; 
then  harrow  the  wheat  lightly  and  sow  the  seed.  After 
the  harrow  has  roughened  the  surface  the  seed  will  be 
covered  usually  by  the  first  shower,  though  it  may  be 
harrowed  again  with  good  effect  after  sowing  the  seed. 
This  harrowing  will  not  often  harm  the  wheat  and  may  do 
it  much  good.  Sown  thus,  one  seldom  fails  in  getting  a 
stand  of  clover.  Another  plan  is  to  sow  twice,  the  first 


158  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

time  early,  the  second  time  late,  using  half  the  seed  at 
each  sowing.  Five  pounds  of  seed  will  give  enough 
plants  for  an  acre  if  only  half  of  them  grow.  Some  very 
good  farmers  follow  this  practice. 

Sowing  Clover  with  a  Spring  Crop. — I  can  get  a  better 
stand  of  clover  by  sowing  it  with  a  spring-sown  crop.  In 
this  manner  of  sowing  I  can  have  the  land  better  pre- 
pared, deeper  stirred  and  less  apt  to  suffer  from  summer 
drouth.  One  can  sow  with  oats,  barley,  or  flax.  Spring 
barley  makes  a  good  mother-crop  for  red  clover.  One 
should  choose  a  sort  that  is  short  and  stiff  in  straw,  so  that 
it  may  not  lodge.  The  beardless  varieties  have  proved 
good  nurse-crops  for  clover.  Similarly  with  oats  one 
should  choose  a  short-strawed,  strong-growing  variety 
that  is  not  apt  to  lodge.  Thin  seeding  of  the  nurse-crop  is 
best.  I  find  a  bushel  of  barley  to  the  acre  is  enough,  and 
three  pecks  of  oats  may  prove  too  much  if  the  soil  is  rich. 
To  sow  liberally  of  phosphatic  fertilizer  with  the  clover 
will  stimulate  it  to  strong  growth  and  make  it  a  better 
stand.  One  dares  not  put  too  much  nitrogenous  manure 
or  fertilizer  on  the  land,  else  one's  oats  or  barley  will  be 
too  rank  in  growth  and  apt  to  lodge;  also  bad  weeds  will 
spring  up  and  choke  the  clover.  Should  one  desire  des- 
perately to  get  a  stand  of  clover,  cut  off  the  nurse-crop 
for  hay  when  it  is  coming  into  bloom,  or  before  it  lodges. 
Thus  taken  away,  it  relieves  the  young  growth  which  now 
comes  rapidly  forward.  I  have  taken  off  a  crop  of  oat 
hay  and  later  in  the  summer  a  very  fair  crop  of  clover 
hay  from  the  same  sowing.  Commonly  splendid  stands 
are  secured  in  this  manner. 


TIME  OF  SEEDING  CLOVER 

Clover  may  also  be  sown  alone  in  spring  with  first-rate 
success.  I  do  not  think  the  advantage  quite  sufficient  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  the  hay  or  grain  crop  that 
might  have  come  from  wheat,  oats  or  barley  as  a  nurse- 
crop.  Clover  may  be  sown  in  fall  on  land  especially  pre- 
pared, usually  with  good  results.  Here  much  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  seedbed,  which  should  be  fine,  firm 
and  as  moist  as  one  can  get  it  at  that  time  of  year.  In 
plowing  land  for  fall-seeding  of  clover  one  should  har- 
row each  half  day  what  was  plowed  immediately  before, 
making  it  at  once  into  a  fine,  mellow  seedbed.  If  one 
lets  it  lose  its  moisture  after  plowing  one  will  hardly  get 
a  seedbed  in  time  for  fall-sowing.  The  time  of  fall- 
sowing  depends  on  the  latitude;  in  Ohio  it  should  be  in 
late  July  or  August;  in  Louisiana  it  may  be  in  October 
or  November.  .  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  get  a  catch  of 
red  clover  by  sowing  in  standing  corn  at  the  time  of  last 
cultivation.  In  parts  of  Minnesota  and  elsewhere  this  is 
practiced. 

The  common  use  of  red  clover  in  America  is  to  sow  it 
with  timothy  in  \vheat.  The  first  year  after  sowing  there 
will  seem  to  be  little  timothy  and  much  clover.  The  fol- 
lowing year  the  clover  is  nearly  gone  and  timothy  pre- 
vails. Afterward  the  clover  shows  but  little.  I  have  tried 
to  keep  stands  of  clover  more  than  two  years  by  prevent- 
ing its  seeding,  but  have  had  rather  poor  success.  I 
have  tried  also  patching  up  thin  clover  meadows  by  sow- 
ing more  seed,  and  this  too  has  not  usually  resulted  well, 
the  new  seedlings  not  growing  off  as  they  should.  The 
best  results  seem  to  come  from  plowing  red  clover  after 


160  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  second  year  and  putting  the  land  to  some  crop  that 
will  utilize  the  fertility  that  it  has  stored.  Corn  or  po- 
tato seems  the  best  crop  for  this  place. 

Sowing  Clover  Mixtures. — I  have  found  that  mixtures 
of  clovers  result  in  heavier  growths  and  better  forage  than 
red  clover  alone.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  clover 
is  to  be  pastured.  A  mixture  of  red,  mammoth  and  alsike 
clovers  with  a  dash  of  little  white  clover  and  a  goodly 
sprinkling  of  alfalfa  has  with  us  resulted  in  astonishingly 
good  pasturage  throughout  the  season.  With  this  can  be 
sown  timothy  if  it  is  for  subsequent  mowing,  though  it  is 
not  of  much  use  if  it  is  to  stand  for  but  one  season.  How- 
ever, the  seed  is  cheap  and  it  will  at  least  repay  that  much. 

Mammoth  Clover. — This  was  until  recently  called  Tri- 
folium  medium,  now  Trifolium  perenne.  It  seems  rather 
a  distinct  variety,  maturing  later,  being  of  coarser  growth 
and  lasting  longer  in  the  ground.  While  I  accept  it  is  a 
distinct  variety,  yet  the  common  beliefs  concerning  it  are 
mistaken.  It  has  been  held  that  mammoth  clover  was 
worthless  for  hay ;  that  it  would  not  grow  after  being  cut, 
so  that  two  cuttings  could  not  be  taken  off  in  one  year, 
and  that  it  had  little  or  no  value  for  pasture.  The  clover, 
as  I  have  observed  it,  is  simply  a  later-blooming,  later- 
maturing  variety  of  common  red  clover,  and  there  are  all 
sorts  of  intermediates  between,  perhaps  caused  by  cross- 
fertilization  of  the  blossoms  by  insects.  Mammoth  clover 
makes  good  hay  if  cut  soon  enough,  though  it  is  coarser 
in  stem  than  the  common  clover ;  if  cut  early  it  will  make 
a  second  growth  the  same  year,  and  it  makes  good  graz- 
ing for  stock.  For  poor  soils  mammoth  clover  is  doubt- 


MAKING  CLOVER   HAY.  161 

less  better  than  common  red;  as  a  soil-improver  it  has 
some  advantage,  and  to  add  to  pasture  mixtures  it  is  prob- 
ably better.     One  sows  mammoth  clover  exactly  as  one. 
does  common  red  clover  and  the  seed  can  not  be  distin- 
guished.    Seedsmen  find  considerable  difficulty  in  getting 
the  seeds  of  these  clovers  pure  and  true  to  name,  and  this 
difficulty  arises  in  no  small  measure  from  the  habit  of  the 
farmer  in  failing  oftentimes  to  designate  whether  the 
seed  he  is  offering  is  of  the  mammoth  or  common  variety. 
Making   Clover   Hay. — Volumes    have   been    written 
about  making  clover  hay.    To  make  the  best  hay,  clover 
should  be  mown  before  the  blooms  have  turned  brown 
and  cured  as  much  as  possible  without  too  long  exposure 
to  the  bright  sun.     It  should  be  raked  before  the  leaves 
are  crisp  enough  to  powder  and  fall  off,  put  up  in  small 
cocks  not  wide  at  the  base  and  as  high  as  they  can  be 
safely  piled,  left  in  cocks  for  a  day  or  two  to  cure  some- 
what, perhaps  afterward  opened  to  the  sun  for  an  hour 
or  more  and  then  hurried  to  the  mow.    The  test  of  right 
curing  is  when  one  can  not  by  hand-twisting  of  a  wisp  of 
the  hay  cause  any  moisture  to  exude.     There  are,  how- 
ever, a  thousand  contingencies  of  weather  that  will  inter- 
fere with  any  well-devised  programme  of  clover  hay- 
making in  the  land  of  summer  showers.     One  must  be  a 
schemer,   ready   to  take   advantage   of   sun   and   wind, 
prompt  to  act  when  sudden  dark  and  portentous  clouds 
roll  up  in  the  west,  patient  and  unstinting  in  cocking, 
opening  out  to  dry,  and  cocking  again.     The  alternative 
is  to  let  the  heads  brown  before  cutting,  mow  in  the 
morning  of  a  hot,  dry  day  and  take  to  the  barn  in  the 


162  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

afternoon,  using  the  hay-loader  and  side-delivery  rake. 
Thus  with  the  least  cost  and  effort  one  gets  a  large 
amount  of  woody  and  less  nutritious  hay. 

Growing  Clover  Seed. — Clover  should  be  cut  for  seed 
as  soon  as  the  most  of  the  heads  have  turned  brown,  and 
left  to  lie  in  the  sun  for  a  week  or  more  before  it  is 
threshed.  There  are  clover  bunchers  that  attach  to  the 
mower  cutter-bar  that  will  gather  the  clover  as  fast  as  it 
is  cut,  or  a  self-rake  reaper  may  be  used.  The  less  the 
clover  is  handled  the  better,  since  the  heads  readily  break 
off.  If  rain  comes  it  will  do  no  harm;  in  truth,  several 
rains  with  alternate  spells  of  dry  weather  will  make  the 
clover  hull  all  the  easier.  I  have  stacked  clover  seed 
with  fair  success,  but  it  must  stay  in  stack  a  long  time 
and  be  well  protected  from  the  weather,  else  it  will  be 
too  tough  to  thresh  well.  Ordinarily  it  is  better  to 
thresh  from  the  field  or  else  wait  till  a  cold  day  in  win- 
ter, when  it  may  be  threshed  from  the  dry  stack.  Yields 
of  clover  seed  vary  from  a  few  quarts  to  10  bushels  from 
an  acre.  A  moderately  thin  stand,  on  a  soil  not  too  rich, 
makes  the  most  seed. 

Clover  Dodder. — Within  recent  years  a  new  pest  has 
come  to  cloverfields — the  slender  parasitic  vine,  called 
dodder.  It  is  an  almost  leafless  yellow  vine  found  twin- 
-  ing  itself  about  the  clover  stems  which  it  ties  into  an  in- 
extricable tangle.  Wherever  it  touches  a  clover  stem  it 
sends  a  rootlet  into  it  and  preys  on  the  juices  of  the  un- 
fortunate host  plant.  In  time  it  destroys  the  clover.  It 
spreads  rapidly.  Dodder  comes  from  seed  and  is  at  first 
attached  to  the  earth,  As  soon  as  it  reaches  a  clover  plant 


DODDER  ON  RED  CLOVER 


163 


Field  Dodder  on  Bed  Clover;  a,  Flowering  cluster;  b,  cluster  of  dry  seed  vessels. 
From   a   photograph.     Natural   size, 


164  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

it  twines  about  it  and  sending  in  rootlets  into  it  never 
afterward  depends  on  the  soil  for  sustenance. 

Dodder  can  not  all  be  cleaned  from  clover  seed  by  use 
of  the  best  machinery.  If  one  finds  it  in  one's  field  one 
should  at  once  cut  off  the  infected  spots,  and  leaving 
the  plants  lie  on  the  earth  let  them  dry  a  few  days,  then 
add  straw  to  them  and  burn  over  the  spot  where  the 
dodder  grew.  In  this  manner  one  may  easily  eradicate 
the  pest  and  prevent  one's  soil  becoming  infested  with 
dodder  seed.  It  seems  little  less  than  criminal  to  cut 
clover  seed  from  a  dodder-infested  field,  yet  evidently 
some  farmers  do  or  we  should  not  so  often  find  it  in 
clover  seed.  Laws  insuring  the  purity  of  agricultural 
seeds  have  been  put  on  the  statute  books  in  several  states. 

Clover  and  Timothy  for  Feeding. — Hunt  says :  "The 
total  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of 
clover  hay  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  100  pounds 
of  timothy  hay.  The  Pennsylvania  station  has  shown 
that  the  full  value, — i.  e.,  the  total  energy  that  can  be 
set  free  in  the  body  of  a  steer,  is  nearly  the  same  in 
both  kinds  of  hay.  The  net  available  energy,  however, 
of  clover  hay  when  fed  to  a  steer  as  a  maintenance  ration 
is  found  to  be  considerably  less  than  that  of  timothy  hay. 
On  the  other  hand,  clover  hay  furnishes  more  than  three 
times  as  large  a  proportion  of  proteids  as  does  timothy 
hay.  The  practical  application  of  these  experiments 
would  seem  to  be  that,  for  the  purpose  of  balancing  the 
ration,  clover  hay  has  a  high  feeding  value  for  growing 
or  milking  ruminants;  but  where  the  ration  has  already 
sufficient  protein  for  the  needs  of  the  animal,  clover  hay 


"  SUMMARY  OF  RED  CLOVER  165 

is  not  superior,  and  is  perhaps  inferior  to  timothy  hay  in 
feeding  value." 

SUMMARY  OF  RED   CLOVER. 

Red  clover  has  done  more  than  any  other  legume  to 
benefit  American  agriculture.  It  is  best  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  American  farmer  because  it  is  so  quickly 
and  easily  established,  and  commonly  so  hardy  and 
thrifty.  It  is  adapted  to  all  of  Canada,  and  the  United 
States  north  of  the  Gulf  States  and  east  of  the  Missouri 
River.  If  one  finds  one's  soil  responding  better  to  alsike 
one  should  try  the  effect  of  drainage  and  good  liming, 
preferably  with  carbonate  of  lime  (ground  limestone), 
which  will  in  most  instances  make  red  clover  succeed, 
especially  if  one  has  added  phosphorus  and  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil.  Red  clover  is  a  better  plant  than  al- 
sike clover  because  it  is  larger-growing  and  deeper-rooted 
and  more  abundantly  supplied  with  nitrogen-securing  bac- 
teria. It  is  not  so  good  a  plant  as  alfalfa  where  alfalfa 
may  be  grown,  because  alfalfa  gives  more  and  better 
forage  and  also  enriches  the  soil  more  rapidly  than  does 
red  clover.  There  are  degrees  in  good  farming.  Alsike 
clover-growing  might  be  called  the  first  degree,  red  clover 
comes  with  the  second  degree  and  alfalfa  with  the  third 
and  highest  degree.  It  is  nearly  true  that  any  soil  that 
will  grow  red  clover  will  also  grow  alfalfa,  if  it  is  made 
a  little  drier  by  tiles,  a  little  richer  in  carbonate  of  lime 
and  phosphorus  and  given  a  little  more  humus.  While 
one  is  learning  to  do  the  best  thing  one  should  keep  one's 
red  clover  and  strive  to  make  it  as  strong  as  possible, 


166  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Diseases  of  Red  Clover. — "Clover-sick"  lands  in  Eu- 
rope are  found  sometimes  to  be  afflicted  with  a  fungus 
which,  attacking  the  clover,  is  sufficient  to  destroy  it.  I 
have  not  known  of  the  presence  of  this  disease  in  America. 
Clover-sick  lands  in  America  are  commonly  deficient  only 
in  lime,  phosphorus  and  vegetable  matter,  or  else  are 
poorly  drained,  though  I  have  known  lands  to  refuse  to 
grow  the  plant  till  potassium  had  been  applied.  Thorne 
found  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  that  liming  cured 
soils  that  would  not  grow  red  clover.  In  Tennessee  is 
found  anthracnose  attacking  red  clover  and  alfalfa,  but 
doing  no  damage  to  alsike  clover.  Anthracnose  is  a 
fungus  attacking  stems  and  leaves  and  causing  "clover- 
wilt."  Diligent  search  revealed  growing  in  the  state 
many  immune  plants  which  were  collected  in  nursery  and 
propagated  at  the  Tennessee  station,  from  which  it  is 
hoped  enough  seed  may  be  secured  to  restore  the  clover- 
fields  of  the  state.  In  the  meantime,  alsike  clover  is  being 
sown  as  a  substitute  for  the  familiar  red,  in  which  use  it 
is  fairly  successful. 

Alsike  Clover  (Trifoliuni  hybridum). — Alsike  clover 
has  a  curious  resemblance  to  both  red  and  little  white 
clovers,  and  is  sometimes  called  a  hybrid,  though  there  is 
no  proof  that  it  is  so.  It  has  in  part  the  recumbent  habit 
of  growth  of  little  white  clover,  but  is  much  larger  and 
makes  more  hay.  It  is  a  smaller-growing  species  than 
red  clover  and  yet  it  will  in  certain  soils  make  more  hay. 
It  is  able  to  endure  wretter  soils  than  red  clover,  and  is  not 
so  hungry  for  lime.  Thus  it  finds  certain  ranges  of  soil 
and  situations  on  which  it  is  a  better  clover  than  any 


GRASS  MIXTURES  WITH  CLOVER  167 

other.  In  Europe  it  is  esteemed  a  perennial.  In  our 
own  North  and  East  it  is  said  to  be  nearly  a  perennial.  In 
Ohio  and  southward  it  is,  however,  much  shorter-lived.  I 
do  not  think  it  worth  planting  where  red  clover  or  alfalfa 
thrives,  except  in  mixtures  where  it  seems  to  add  to  the 
weight  and  quality  of  the  hay.  Alsike  clover  feeds  bees, 
which  red  clover  does  not  usually,  and  it  makes  delicious 
honey.  It  makes  a  good  seed  crop,  and  the  seed  is  so 
small  that  one  may  sow  less  than  half  the  amount  that 
one  would  sow  of  red  clover.  The  seed  is  in  the  first 
crop,  though  it  may  be  pastured  for  a  time  in  spring.  It 
is  better  to  sow  alsike  clover  with  timothy,  as  it  is  then 
less  apt  to  go  down  and  be  hard  to  mow.  A  good  mix- 
ture is  timothy  1 5  pounds,  red  clover  6,  and  alsike  clover 
4  pounds  wrhen  cut  for  hay.  A  favorite  mixture,  and  one 
in  general  practice  in  middle  Tennessee,  is  5  pounds  or- 
chard grass,  5  pounds  meadow  oatgrass,  4  pounds  redtop, 
and  4  pounds  alsike. 

Alsike  clover  has  come  into  disrepute  in  certain  sec- 
tions because  horses  and  mules  pastured  on  it  exclusively 
have  been  troubled  by  eruptions  of  the  skin.  Unless  the 
vital  organs  are  affected,  animals  recover  all  right  on  be- 
ing removed  from  such  pasture.  This  has  affected  more 
animals  which  have  white  feet  or  noses.  The  cause  of 
this  malady  is  obscure,  and  so  far  as  observed  no  cases 
have  originated  in  pastures  having  grasses  mixed  with 
clover.  I  have  not  heard  of  animals  being  affected  by 
eating  the  hay;  the  disease  originates  in  pastures. 

Crimson  Clover  (Trifoliwn  incarnatimi). — This  clover 
is  often  called  scarlet  clover  or  carnation  clover,  and  in 


168  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

England  trifolium.  There  are  two  varieties:  one  with 
crimson  and  the  other  with  white  flowers.  There  are  in 
France  recognized  a  number  of  minor  varieties  differing 
chiefly  in  their  time  of  maturing.  A  field  of  crimson 
clover  in  bloom  is  a  sight  not  soon  to  be  forgotten.  The 
bloom  is  more  brilliant  than  that  of  any  other  plant  of 
our  fields  or  meadows.  The  clover  is  well  worth  growing 
as  an  ornamental  in  the  flower  bed  if  there  is  not  room 
for  it  in  the  meadow.  I  recall  vividly  the  crimson  patches 
on  the  landscapes  of  England  and  France,  more  especially 
the  latter.  In  France  it  seems  the  custom  to  sow  clovers 
in  mixtures.  I  have  seen  crimson  clover  sown  with  red 
clover  and  rye  grass,  all  mown  off  together  and  fed  to 
dairy  cows.  In  England  it  is  used  as  a  soiling  crop  for 
lambs  that  are  fitted  for  the  shows,  and  it  is  a  gaudy  sight 
to  see  at  the  showyard  the  great  lusty  lambs,  nicely  col- 
ored as  to  fleece,  standing  at  racks  filled  with  crimson 
clover,  very  crimson  as  to  top  and  very  darkly,  richly 
green  as  to  leaf,  I  think  the  clover  is  sometimes  fed  off 
there  in  hurdles  as  well.  Crimson  clover  is  strictly  an 
annual,  living  less  than  one  year.  Commonly  the  seed 
falls  to  the  ground  in  June,  germinating  in  July  or  Aug- 
ust. The  plant  makes  growth  during  the  cool  weather 
or  fall,  and  is  so  resistant  to  cold  that  it  is  green  nearly 
all  winter.  With  the  first  warm  days  of  spring  it  is  up 
and  doing;  it  heads  in  May,  perfects  seed  and  dies. 

Where  Is  Crimson  Clover  of  Use? — Crimson  clover  is 
a  plant  for  mild  climates.  It  can  not  endure  extreme 
frost.  It  has  failed  with  me  more  often  than  it  has 
succeeded  in  central  Ohio.  North  of  me  along  Lake 


WHERE   CRIMSON    CLOVER   THRIVES  169 

Erie  it  has  succeeded  with  the  orchardists,  I  think,  about 
two  years  out  of  four.  It  is  of  no  use  in  the  cornbelt 
except  in  very  favoring  years,  which  is  unfortunate,  as 
it  would  be  the  best  sort  of  legume  for  keeping  our  nitro- 
gen, and  enable  us  to  follow  corn  with  corn  much  more 
than  we  can  now  safely  do.  The  home  of  crimson  clover 
in  America  seems  to  be  limited  to  Long  Island,  New  Jer- 
sey, Delaware,  eastern  Virginia,  the  Carolinas  and  all 
the  Gulf  States.  It  is  in  use  chiefly  in  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware and  Virginia.  There  it  is  commonly  sown  after  to- 
matoes or  other  truck  crops,  or  in  the  corn  at  the  time 
of  last  cultivation.  In  Maryland  it  grows  in  very  poor, 
sandy  soils  deficient  in  lime,  which.it  does  not  seem  to 
need  as  much  as  do  most  clovers.  I  have  seen  it  green 
all  winter,  even  with  a  good  many  hard  frosts  and  some 
freezing  weather.  It  responds  to  fertilizers  admirably, 
and  in  these  poor  sandy  soils  it  is  a  godsend,  accumu- 
lating nitrogen  and  humus,  using  the  little  dole  of  com- 
mercial fertilizer  thrown  in  it  in  a  most  economical  man- 
ner and  returning  with  prodigious  liberality.  It  is  a 
plant  for  poor  soils  and  mild  climates.  Nevertheless,  it 
yields  most  on  good  soils,  which  it  makes  still  better. 

Steadily  the  region  of  crimson  clover's  domain  en- 
larges as  men  know  how  to  use  it  and  soils  become  in- 
oculated for  it.  After  testing  every  one  of  the  common 
clovers  in  Louisiana,  I  am  convinced  that  crimson  clover 
has  more  merit  than  any  other  for  a  winter-growing 
catch-crop,  though  I  liked  well  there  the  mixture  of 
crimson  clover,  bur  clover  and  red  clover.  This  use 
convinced  me  that  the  whole  South  should  take  up  crim- 
son clover  and  use  it  after  corn  and  cotton  as  a  catch- 


170  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

crop ;  it  should,  indeed,  sow  fields  of  it  especially  for 
its  soil-building  effect,  and  to  use  as  forage  for  winter 
grazing  with  pigs,  calves  and  sheep.  It  should  grow  its 
own  seed,  which  could  easily  be  done,  and  learn  to  inocu- 
late new  soils,  for  this  is  one  of  the  clovers  that  resents 
a  raw,  uninoculated  soil.  There  are  many  legumes  that 
will  help  the  South,  and  this,  it  seems  to  me,  is  chief  of 
them  all  at  present,  since  it  is  tolerant  of  poor  soils,  and, 
growing  during  southern  winters,  \vould  put  the  land  to 
double  use,  besides  stopping  the  waste  of  nitrogen  from 
leaching  of  winter  rains.  The  chief  reason  why  crimson 
clover  has  not  met  with  more  favor  in  the  South  is  that 
commonly  it  has  been  sown  on  uninoculated  soil.  An-, 
other  difficulty  is  the  dry  weather  in  the  fall  that  some- 
times interferes  with  getting  a  stand,  especially  on  clay 
or  buckshot  soils.  Crimson  clover  grows  commonly  2' 
or  more  high,  and  stands  erect  with  less  tendency  than 
red  clover  to  lodge.  It  makes  much  less  weight  of  hay 
than  one  is  led  to  expect  from  seeing  it  grow.  It  is 
better  fed  green  than  made  into  hay.  If  fed  after  the 
heads  begin  to  ripen,  there  is  danger  of  death  to  cattle 
and  horses  from  the  forming  of  "hair  balls"  in  their 
stomachs.  While  crimson  clover  makes  good  forage  and 
is  relished  by  all  classes  of  animals,  its  chief  worth  is  as 
a  soil-renovating  plant.  It  is  sown  in  orchards  to  be 
turned  under,  after  truck  crops  come  off  the  land,  or 
after  corn  or  cotton.  '  In  Virginia  it  is  commonly  used 
as  a  forerunner  of  alfalfa.  When  thus  used  it  is  turned 
under  when  in  full  bloom,  and  the  land  afterward  given 
good  culture  for  some  weeks  till  late  July  or  early 
August,  when  the  alfalfa  seed  is  sown.  It  is  very  notice- 


EFFECTS  OF  CklMSON  CLOVER  1?1 

able  that  when  one  is  endeavoring  to  bring  up  poor  soils 
by  the  use  of  crimson  clover,  the  more  one  helps  the 
clover  by  means  of  manures  the  more  the  clover  in  turri 
is  able  to  help  the  land.  Thus  it  pays  well  to  fertilize 
liberally  when  the  clover  is  sown,  choosing  a  fertilizer 
rich  in  phosphorus,  and  for  some  soils  potassium.  Crim- 
son clover  is  !ess  insistent  than  some  clovers  on  lime  in 
the  soil,  though  it  thrives  best  when  the  land  is  fairly 
sweet. 

Bees  revel  in  crimson  clover,  which  is  a  good  point.  It 
makes  seed  very  abundantly  and  the  seed  is  easily  threshed 
by  either  machine  or  hand.  Crimson  clover  seed  must  be 
harvested  at  night  or  very  early  in  the  morning.  Not  a 
few  southern  farmers  take  squares  of  canvas  to  the  field, 
and  having  the  clover  cut  and  dry,  flail  out  the  seed.  This 
may  leave  the  seed  in  the  chaff,  but  for  home  sowing 
this  is  no  objection ;  in  truth,  some  believe  it  grows  more 
surely  in  that  condition.  It  may  yield  5  to  10  bushels 
of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  yield  of  green  forage  from 
crimson  clover  may  easily  reach  10  tons  to  the  acre.  As 
a  gatherer  of  fertility  it  may  yield  to  the  soil  as  much  as 
200  pounds  to  the  acre  of  nitrogen,  besides  considerable 
good  grazing,  and  all,  practically,  for  the  cost  of  seed- 
ing, since  it  grows  mainly  during  the  time  between  crops. 
I  suggest  to  farmers  living  south  of  the  Ohio  River  the 
establishing  of  small  fields  of  crimson  clover,  if  no  more 
than  plats  in  the  gardens,  whence  can  be  taken  soil  to 
inoculate  larger  fields.  For  the  small  plat  one  can  doubt- 
less secure  inoculated  earth  from  experiment  stations. 

Sowing  Crimson  Clover. — Crimson  clover  seed  is  large 
and  commonly  of  good  quality.  It  is  not  often  adulter- 


172  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

ated.     It  can  not  be  sown  in  the  spring.     July,  August, 
September  or  October  are  the  months  of  sowing,  depend- ' 
ing  on  location;  the  later  months  are  best  for  the  Gulf 
States. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — From  10  to  20  pounds  to 
the  acre  are  sown.  It  is  commonly  sown  alone.  I  have 
had  good  results  mixing  it  with  other  clovers  in  Louisi- 
ana, though  the  crimson  clover  outgrew  its  rivals  at 
first.  The  chief  difficulty  is  to  get  the  plants  started  at 
this  dry  time  of  year.  It  is  not  always  safe  to  sow  in 
the  dust,  since  there  may  come  a  very  slight  rain  that 
will  sprout  the  seed  without  sustaining  it.  Besides  sow- 
ing as  a  catch-crop  m  the  standing  corn,  it  may  be  sown 
alone  on  fields  especially  prepared  for  it.  Thus  sown 
in  Louisiana  we  had  best  success,  and  it  made  us  good 
pasturage  for  hogs.  It  may  be  mixed  with  rape  seed, 
one  pound  of  the  latter  to  five  of  crimson  clover,  for  hog 
pasture.  One  must  not  graze  closely  if  one  wishes  to 
get  the  greatest  good  from  the  plant. 

Crimson  Clover  as  a  Regenerator. — I  feel  that  I  can 
not  urge  too  strongly  the  importance  of  this  legume  to 
the  South.  It  comes  at  a  time  when  fields  are  commonly 
idle,  wasting  and  unlovely.  It  covers  them  over  with 
a  mantle  of  green.  It  stores  them  with  fertility,  adds 
humus  and  makes  them  mellow.  It  affords  feed  for 
plantation  stock,  commonly  half-famished  for  something 
green  and  succulent,  and  is  good  for  fowls  and  bees. 
The  farmer  once  having  his  fields  inoculated  and  a  start 
of  the  clover,  is  able  to  save  his  own  seed  and  have 
enough  for  himself  and  his  neighbors.  Crimson  clover 
rightly  used  will  lay  the  foundation  for  better  things. 


CRIMSON   CLOVER  AND  PEAS  173 

If  the  southern  farmer  is  ready  for  no  more,  let  him 
sow  a  single  pound  of  seed  in  some  good  spot  of  well- 
prepared  soil,  nourish  it  and  sow  again  the  succeeding 
year,  and,  continually,  till  the  inoculation  is  complete. 
From  that  little  spot  may  radiate  lovely  fields  in  every 
direction ;  it  may  become  the  center  of  a  new  agriculture. 

Crimson  Clover  and  Cowpeas  Together. — The  "South- 
ern Farm  Gazette"  contains  the  subjoined  helpful  letter 
written  by  W.  C.  Crook,  Henderson  County,  Tenn. : 

"We  sow  crimson  clover  alone  in  our  corn  fields  at  last  plow- 
ing, at  the  rate  of  15  to  17  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  From  this 
sowing  we  nearly  always  get  a  splendid  winter  crop  for  our 
soil.  But  after  careful  experimenting  we  have  almost  abandoned 
sowing  it  alone  at  the  last  plowing  of  corn.  We  found  by  sowing 
it  with  cowpeas  that,  in  case  clover  failed,  we  still  had  one  legumi- 
nous crop  and  could  follow  with  rye  just  the  same.  But  when 
sown  with  peas  we  have  but  few  failures  with  the  clover.  It  is 
greatly  shaded  by  the  peas  and  thus  protected  while  young  from 
the  hot  sun  and  parching  winds.  The  decaying  peavines  also  pro- 
tect and  nourish  the  clover  through  the  winter  season.  We  also 
sow  crimson  clover  along  after  wheat  and  oat  harvest  and  get  fine 
results.  But  here,  as  in  our  corn  land,  we  get  best  results  when 
sown  with  peas.  By  so  sowing  we  can  cut  the  peas  for  hay  and 
still  have  the  clover  for  a  second  hay  crop,  or  to  be  turned  down 
for  green  manure.  We  do  the  latter,  as  we  get  all  the  hay  we  can 
use  from  cowpeas,  and  it  is  a  better  grade  of  hay.  The  cowpea  hay 
is  not  so  good  when  sown  with  clover,  as  one  must  not  sow  over 
3/4  bushel  of  pea  seed  per  acre.  Therefore  the  hay  is  coarse. 

"We  find  it  pays  to  give  land  intended  for  peas  and  crimson 
clover  a  top  dressing  of  250  to  300  pounds  phosphoric  acid  per  acre. 
By  doing  this  we  are  able  to  take  very  thin  land  and  get  a  heavy 
crop  of  both  peas  and  clover.  We  have  made  many  experimental 
tests  to  see  the  effects  of  turning  in  a  good  growth  of  peas  and  clo- 
ver ;  and  always  found  the  following  crop  to  withstand  a  drouth 
splendidly,  make  a  very  rapid  growth,  and  yield  from  200  to  400 
more  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre.  In  one  test  we  found  the 
wheat  yield  increased  7Y<\  bushels,  and  on  another  the  corn  yield 


174  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

was  increased  11  bushels  per  acre,  where  a  growth  of  this  kind  had 
been  turned  down.  We  made  a  test  with  potatoes  where  a  rank 
growth  of  crimson  clover  and  decaying  peavines  had  been  turned, 
and  found  that  we  had  not  only  gotten  18  bushels  more  potatoes 
per  acre,  but  they  were  much  smoother,  more  uniform,  and  freer 
from  scab  also." 

Bur  Clovers. — There  are  a  good  many  species  of  bur 
clover  that  have  more  or  less  value.  Among  those  most 
commonly  seen  are  Medicago  maculata  and  M.  denticu- 
lata.  These  annual  wild  clovers  were  found  originally  in 
southern  Europe,  then  naturalized  in  California,  later 
coming  into  more  or  less  use  in  our  southern  states.  In 
California  bur  clover  in  the  winter  makes  a  lovely  sight, 
much  resembling  our  white  clover,  only  of  more  robust 
growth.  Animals  eat  it  after  they  become  accustomed 
to  it,  though  it  is  not  at  first  relished.  After  the  forage 
is  dry  it  seems  better  liked.  In  California  it  dries  up 
after  the  rains  cease,  and  remains  dry  and  yellow  till 
eaten  during  the  long,  dry  summer.  After  it  is  eaten 
the  earth  is  found  covered  with  the  burry  pods,  which 
are  greedily  licked  up  by  cattle  and  sheep.  The  burs 
of  some  species  become  entangled  in  the  wool  of  sheep 
and  are  more  or  less  troublesome.  Bur  clovers  are  rela- 
tives of  alfalfa,  and  carry  the  same  bacteria.  They  enrich 
land  on  which  they  grow,  as  do  all  clovers,  and,  as  they 
grow  in  winter,  have  distinct  value.  Growing  with  Ber- 
muda grass  it  is  objected  that  animals  do  not  eat  the 
clovers,  and  they  tend  to  make  too  rank  growth  and  to 
smother  out  the  grass  in  patches.  In  Louisiana  I  have 
seen  bur  clover  growing  luxuriantly  along  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  and  have  tried  to  establish  it  by  sowing  the 
seed.  It  seems  less  easy  to  establish  than  crimson  clover, 


THE    MERITS   OF    BUR   CLOVER  175 

and  of  less  value,  on  the  whole,  though  it  has  the  merit 
of  reseeding  itself,  once  established.  I  approve  of  bur 
clover,  as  it  is  a  nutritious,  soil-enriching  legume,  and  ad- 
vise southern  farmers  to  make  effort  to  establish  it  along 
roadsides  and  in  pastures,  which  it  would  beautify  and 
enrich.  It  seems  to  like  a  soil  rich  in  lime,  and  to  need 
inoculation. 

There  is  a  new  bur  clover,  Medicago  obiculata,  that 
makes  a  most  astonishingly  vigorous  growth  in  California, 
affording  of  dry  forage  as  much  as  4  or  more  tons  to 
the  acre,  and  leaving  when  raked  away  many  bushels 
of  seed  on  the  earth.  This  clover  is  said  to  be  some- 
what tender,  but  it  should  thrive  in  southern  Texas  and 
the  Gulf  States.  In  California  this  bur  clover  would  af- 
ford 20  times  the  amount  of  summer  feed  that  is  now 
had  from  native  wild  growth,  and  is  well  worth  test- 
ing. It  may  need  to  have  stock  kept  off  it  till  it  has 
nearly  matured,  in  which  case  one  could  have  a  fenced 
pasture  of  Medicago  obiculata  and  another  pasture  of 
native  wild  oats  and  smaller  bur  clover.  Seed  of  all 
these  bur  clovers  is  obtained  by  removing  the  vines  and 
sweeping  the  seed  from  the  dry  ground  with  wire  brooms. 
None  of  them  is  of  any  use  in  the  northern  states,  but 
all  have  their  uses  in  the  South  and  should  be  taught 
to  grow  in  pasture  and  as  catch-crops.  One  of  the  first 
men  to  call  attention  to  the  value  of  bur  clover  was  Dr. 
Tait  Butler,  then  of  North  Carolina,  now  editor  of  the 
"Southern  Farm  Gazette,"  from  which  valuable  southern 
farm  journal  I  quote : 

"The  chief  use  of  bur  clover  is  as  a  clover  crop  during  the  win- 
ter and  spring,  to  gather  nitrogen  for  soil  improvement,  and  as  an 


176  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

early  pasture.  It  is  an  annual  and  must  be  sown  every  year  or 
sufficient  seed  allowed  to  ripen  to  re-seed  itself.  It  makes  an  early 
spring  growth  and  sufficient  seed  will  ripen  from  May  1  to  May  20, 
according  to  location,  to  re-seed  the  land.  In  two  years'  experi- 
ments on  one  of  the  test  farms  of  the  North  Carolina  State  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  bur  clover  produced  sufficient  growth  of 
hay  to  yield  an  average  of  $28.27  worth  of  nitrogen  per  acre  at 
current  prices  in  mixed  commercial  fertilizers.  On  two  plats  fer- 
tilized with  the  same  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  but 
the  one  having  grown  a  crop  of  bur  clover  and  the  other  having 
been  fertilized  with  120  pounds  of  cottonseed-meal,  the  bur  clover 
plot  gave  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds  more  seed  cotton  per  acre.  At 
4  cents  a  pound  for  seed  cotton  this  would  give  an  increased  profit 
of  $16  per  acre.  The  increased  cost  of  picking,  and  the  like,  would 
be  covered  by  the  120  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  used  on  the  other 
plot,  which  would  leave  a  net  profit  of  $16  for  the  crop  of  bur  clo- 
ver. That  a  heavy  crop  of  bur  clover  was  grown  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  nearly  three  tons  of  hay  were  obtained  as  an  average  of 
two  years'  trials  on  this  farm,  but  half  that  growth  would  yield  a 
profit  sufficient  to  more  than  justify  the  use  of  this  plant  as  a  win- 
ter cover  crop  on  the  cotton  fields. 

"Its  chief  value  as  a  pasture  crop  is  in  the  fact  that  it  affords 
pasture  during  February  and  March  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
green  feed.  While  it  is  a  legume,  and  rich  in  protein,  it  is  not  read- 
ily eaten  by  stock  except  when  other  more  palatable  green  feed  is 
not  obtainable.  It  grows  on  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  will,  un- 
der proper  conditions,  probably  do  well  practically  throughout  our 
entire  territory.  Bur  clover  may  be  sown  at  the  last  working  of 
the  corn  or  cotton  crop.  In  fact,  that  is  probably  the  best  time  to 
sow  it  if  seed  in  the  bur  is  used  instead  of  clean  seed.  It  takes 
the  burs  some  time  to  rot  and  unless  sown  in  July  or  August  a 
stand  is  not  so  certain.  If  clean  seed  are  used,  later  sowing  may 
be  advisable.  The  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  and  lightly  covered 
with  a  cultivator  at  the  last  working.  When  level  cultivation  is 
practiced  this  will  be  found  satisfactory,  but  if  the  turn  plow  is 
used  in  cultivating,  the  seed  may  be  covered  too  deeply  unless  a 
very  large  quantity  is  used.  After  the  seed  burs  ripen  they  fall  to 
the  ground  and  are  usually  swept  up  in  gathering  the  seed.  In  this 
way  more  or  less  soil  and  trash  are  gathered  with  the  seed  burs 
and  sufficient  of  the  germs  or  bacteria  usually  adhere  to  the  burs 


SWEET  CLOVER  OR   MELILOTUS  177 

to  inoculate  a  fresh  soil  if  a  liberal  quantity  of  seed  be  used — about 
two  bushels  to  the  acre.  If  clean  seed  are  used,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  inoculate  the  soil  in  some  way  if  bur  clover  has  not  been  recent- 
ly grown  successfully  on  this  soil,  and  the  most  satisfactory  way  to 
inoculate — as  for  any  of  the  legumes — is  to  obtain  a  few  hundred 
pounds  of  soil  for  each  acre,  from  a  field  that  has  produced  a  good 
crop  of  this  clover.  Even  with  the  seed  sown  in  the  burs,  complete 
and  satisfactory  inoculation  is  not  usual  the  first  year,  but  the  sec- 
ond year  it  usually  becomes  sufficient.  It  is  usually  claimed  that 
.soil  that  has  grown  alfalfa  or  melilotus  successfully  is  inoculated 
for  bur  clover. 

"Many  failures  to  obtain  a  stand  of  this  plant  are  recorded  and 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  they  are  most  often  due  to  sowing  too 
late,  when  the  seed  are  in  the  burs,  and*  to  the  lack  of  inoculation. 
There  is  probably  no  winter  cover  crop  from  which  the  best  re- 
sults can  be  obtained  in  time  to  prepare  the  land  again  for  cotton. 
For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  many  others,  some  other  crop  should 
follow  the  cotton  and  bur  clover.  If  corn  be  planted  after  the  bur 
clover,  ample  time  exists  for  the  ripening  of  the  clover,  the  prop- 
er preparation  of  the  land  and  the  growth  of  the  corn  crop.  As 
soon  as  enough  of  the  bur  clover  has  ripened  to  insure  re-seeding 
of  the  land — May  1  to  20 — the  land  should  be  well  broken,  thor- 
oughly harrowed  and  the  corn  planted.  We  advise  those  who  are 
thinking  of  trying  bur  clover  for  the  first  time,  to  sow  only  a 
small  area,  say  one  acre.  Procure  seed  in  the  burs  and  also,  if 
practicable,  200  to  500  pounds  of  soil  from  a  field  where  the  crop 
is  now  growing  well.  Sow  the  latter  part  of  July  or  in  August, 
and  after  a  success  has  been  achieved  on  one  acre  the  seed  and  the 
inoculated  soil  are  at  hand  for  sowing  several  acres  if  desired.  As 
a  cover  crop  and  soil  improver  bur  clover  is  worth  much  more 
than  it  will  cost  to  grow  it,  but  get  your  soil  inoculated  and  learn 
how  to  handle  it  before  you  try  it  on  a  large  scale." 

Sweet  Clover  (Melilotus  alba,  M.  officinalis) . — This 
plant  resembles  alfalfa,  and  is  closely  related  to  it.  When 
young  it  is  hard  to  distinguish  from  alfalfa  unless  one 
tastes  the  stem  or  leaves,  when  its  characteristic  bitter 
taste  is  discovered.  It  has  also  a  distinct  odor  that  gives 
it  its  name  "sweet  clover,"  and  this  odor  it  retains  when 


178  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

x. 

made  into  hay.  There  are  two  species,  white  and  yellow. 
The  yellow-blooming  variety  (M.  officinalis)  is  smaller 
and  of  less  value  than  the  white-blooming  one,  though 
it  lacks  the  troublesome  coarseness  of  its  relative,  M.  alba. 
Sweet  clover  is  a  biennial,  starting  one  year  and  making 
no  attempt  to  bloom,  blooming  the  second  year  and  dy- 
ing. Seed  may  drop  so  that  there  will  be  a  continuous 
growth  on  the  land,  and  sometimes  men  sow  the  seed  for 
two  years  in  succession  so  as  to  have  it  in  continuous 
growth.  Of  few  plants  has  more  been  said  for  and 
against.  Some  states  have  proscribed  it  as  a  noxious 
weed ;  others  have  expressly  stated  that  it  was  not  a  weed 
at  all.  Men  have,  without  reason,  feared  it  and  cursed 
it;  others  have  with  care  established  it  and  are  using 
it  as  a  bee  pasture  and  as  forage,  both  green  and  dry, 
for  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  Sweet  clover  has  a  mar- 
velous luxuriance  of  growth.  I  have  seen  it  full  8'  high, 
and  that  on  very  hard  soil,  but  rich  in  carbonate  of 
lime  and  phosphorus.  It  carries  the  same  bacteria  as 
alfalfa,  and  enriches  soils  in  the  same  manner.  It  is 
the  most  vigorous  soil-enricher  of  any  of  the  clovers 
and  will  do  what  the  others  will  not,  that  is,  begin  on 
very  poor  worn  soils.  It  luxuriates  on  poor  hillsides  and 
in  time  covers  them  over  with  good  grasses.  It  grows 
on  old,  worn  fields  in  the  South  and  is  grazed  eagerly 
by  lambs,  ewes,  pigs  and  calves.  It  is  occasionally  made 
into  hay,  and  the  Wyoming  Experiment  Station  has 
shown  that  lambs  fed  on  this  hay  make  as  much  gain 
as  on  alfalfa,  or  even  a  little  more.  It  is  the  best  bee 
pasture  extant,  and  it  will  grow  on  soils  too  hard  and 
too  deficient  in  humus  for  alfalfa.  After  growing  for 


THE  VALUE  OF  SWEET   CLOVER 


179 


a  time  the  land  will  grow  the  better  legume.  All  in 
all,  there  is  hardly  a  better  legume  than  sweet  clover, 
and  none  that  can  fill  its  place.  Withal,  it  has  not  fulfilled 


Sweet    Clover, 


Boots  of  Red  Clover  showing:  nodules. 


the  hopes  of  its  friends.  It  seems  a  capricious  plant. 
Growing  luxuriantly  on  the  roadsides  or  along  railway 
embankments,  it  becomes  a  sickly,  insignificant  thing 
sown  on  cultivated  fields.  The  truth  is  that  sweet  clover 


180  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

is  a  lime-loving  plant.  It  will  grow  anywhere  that  the 
soil  is  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime;  rich  or  poor,  sweet 
clover  will  enrich  a  lime  soil.  It  can  not  be  established 
on  a  soil  deficient  in  lime.  It  must  be  inoculated  in  or- 
der to  thrive  anywhere,  but  inoculation  in  right  soils 
comes  easily  and  soon,  whether  artificially  applied  or  not. 
It  is  a  splendid  forager  for  food  and  if  it  has  its  lime- 
hunger  satisfied  is  not  exacting  in  other  things,  and  is, 
indeed,  far  less  exacting  than  any  other  legume  that  I 
know. 

Sweet  Clover  Nowhere  a  Pest. — I  have  never  seen 
sweet  clover  do  injury  to  any  cultivated  crop.  In  the 
meadow  it  disappears  completely  under  ordinary  mow- 
ings, since  it  can  not  seed.  In  pastures  it  seldom  comes, 
since  animals  graze  it  when  young  and  prevent  its  seed- 
ing. Along  ditches,  roadsides  and  in  waste  ground  it 
may  grow  thick  and  rank,  but  there  it  is  better  than 
weeds  since  it  feeds  the  bees  and  is  beautiful  when  young. 
Men  unused  to  it  are  sometimes  annoyed  or  frightened 
if  it  comes  in  their  new-sown  alfalfa  meadows.  Nearly 
all  western-grown  alfalfa  seed  contains  more  or  less  sweet 
clover  and  few  can  distinguish  between  the  seeds,  nor  is 
it  possible  to  separate  them.  The  melilotus  will  do  no 
harm  in  alfalfa  and  will  disappear  in  two  years  of  ordi- 
nary use  of  an  alfalfa  meadow. 

The  Use  of  Szveet  Clover. — I  have  watched  for  years 
the  steady  spread  of  sweet  clover  over  certain  hillsides 
and  mountainsides  of  Kentucky.  When  first  I  knew 
them  they  were  washed,  gullied  and  nearly  barren.  They 
are  stony  hillsides  and  contain  much  carbonate  of  lime. 
Now  they  carry  thousands  of  fields  and  patches  of  sweet 


ESTABLISHING  SWEET  CLOVER  181 

clover  and  present  a  very  beautiful  appearance  in  spring 
and  early  summer.  Sheep,  pigs  and  cattle  graze  this 
melilotus  and  stock-buyers  comment  that  they  get  their 
best  lambs  from  these  farms.  Further,  on  these  once 
bare  hillsides,  the  bluegrasses  are  coming  in,  following 
in  the  wake  of  sweet  clover.  It  is  made  into  hay,  and 
horses,  cows  and  sheep  eat  it  with  relish.  It  is  neces- 
sary for  animals  to  learn  to  eat  the  plant,  and  probably 
they  would  always  prefer  the  other  clovers,  yet  they 
thrive  as  well,  apparently  on  the  sweet  clover  as  on 
any  other  forage.  In  the  limestone  soils  of  Alabama 
and  Mississippi  sweet  clover  is  doing  wonders,  and  some 
farmers  in  those  regions  claim  it  to  be  more  profitable 
than  alfalfa.  In  Colorado  and  other  western  states  it  is 
being  sown  on  very  hard  adobe  soils  to  prepare  them  for 
alfalfa,  the  practice  being  to  turn  it  under  when  at  the 
height  of  its  growth.  It  is  found  to  have  great  power 
to  mellow  hard  adobe  soils. 

Establishing  Szveet  Clover. — Only  on  soils  too  poor  or 
wet  for  alfalfa  would  I  suggest  sowing  sweet  clover.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  much  the  same  manner  as  alfalfa — in  the 
fall  in  southern  climates  and  in  the  spring  or  summer 
at  the  North.  The  land  should  be  well  limed  if  it  is  at  all 
lime-hungry.  Carbonate  of  lime  gives  best  results  with 
sweet  clover.  What  sweet  clover  especially  does  is  to 
secure  nitrogen  from  the  air  by  means  of  its  bacteria, 
and  these  live  only  in  soils  rich  in  lime.  It  must  have 
inoculation  or  it  is  a  poor,  sickly  thing.  Inoculation 
can  be  had  by  sowing  soil  taken  from  a  rank-growing 
sweet  clover  patch  or  from  an  established  alfalfa  field. 
Wherever  nature  has  put  lime  in  the  soil  or  one  can  buy 


182  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

it,  one  can  grow  either  sweet  clover  or  alfalfa;  the  sweet 
clover  may  very  easily  be  a  forerunner  of  the  better  le- 
gume. I  am  firmly  convinced  that  there  are  millions 
of  acres  in  the  United  States  that  would  be  far  more 
profitable  sown  to  sweet  clover  than  they  are  today,  for 
they  would  then  be  made  ready  for  corn  or  alfalfa,  and 
the  sweet  clover  would  yield  honey,  wool  and  meat,  while 
doing  its  work  of  soil  restoration.  Especially  has  it  im- 
mense value  as  a  soil  ameliorant.  There  are  vast  areas 
now  being  reclaimed  by  irrigation  that  have  most  diffi- 
cult soil,  hard  and  clayey,  difficult  to  irrigate  and  to  till. 
These  soils  are  rich  in  mineral  elements  of  fertilization. 
They  lack  nitrogen  and -humus,  something  to  open  them 
and  let  in  air  and  water.  Sweet  clover  thrives  on  these 
hard,  lime-impregnated  lands  and  should  there  be  grown. 
When  it  reaches  full  height  it  should  be  turned  under, 
Money  could  be  made  by  saving  a  seed  crop,  too,  as 
sweet  clover  seed  sells  for  nearly  as  high  a  price  as  alfalfa 
seed. 

Yellow  Trefoil  (Medicago  lupulina). — I  would  not 
mention  this  little  clover  only  that  it  so  often  comes  where 
it  is  not  expected,  and  causes  owners  no  end  of  wonder- 
ment. It  is  a  small,  creeping  clover  with  a  yellow  bloom. 
It  is  harmless  and  makes  good  grazing,  though  not  very 
much  of  it.  In  Europe,  it  is  sometimes  sown  with  intent. 
In  America,  it  is  gotten  only  as  an  adulterant  with  al- 
falfa or  clover  seed,  chiefly  with  alfalfa.  It  may  do  much 
harm  in  alfalfa  by  crowding  the  better  plant  while  it  is 
young;  otherwise  it  is  not  a  weed,  and  the  worst  about 
it  is  that  one  is  deceived  when  one  buys  it  and  is  de- 
frauded. 


HAIRY  VETCH  DESCRIBED  183 

Hairy  Vetch  (Vicia  villosa). — There  have  been  intro- 
duced into  America  many  species  and  varieties  of  vetches. 
Some  are  sown  in  the  spring  and  some  in  the  fall.  There 
is  also  much  variation  in  the  vetches  themselves,  that  they 
might  well  be  divided  into  varieties  of  greater  or  less 
merit,  would  anyone  take  the  trouble.  The  spring-sown 
vetches  are  not  adapted  to  our  hot  dry  summers,  and  prac- 
tically the  one  species  in  cultivation  in  America  is  the 
hairy  or  winter  vetch.  Hairy  vetch  has  several  very  strik- 
ingly good  qualities.  It  is  very  hardy.  It  grows  late  in 
the  fall  and  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  tolerant  of  poor 
soil  and  is  especially  adapted  to  soils  deficient  in  lime 
and  humus.  It  grows  better  in  good  soil  and  is  grateful 
for  being  fed.  It  is  a  heavy  carrier  of  root  tubercles 
and  these  increase  more  during  colder  weather  on  vetches 
than  on  most  legumes.  It  makes  good  forage  that  is  rel- 
ished by  all  classes  of  animals.  It  gathers  more  nitrogen 
than  anything  else  that  can  be' sown  for  a  winter-cover 
crop.  It  is  adapted  to  all  the  South  where  it  grows  near- 
ly all  winter  and  is  hardy  in  New  York.  Hairy  vetch  is 
a  slender,  vine-like,  trailing  plant  with  pinnate  leaves  and 
tendrils  on  the  ends  of  the  leaf  stems.  Its  blooms  re- 
semble small  purple  or  bluish  peas,  and  later  pea-like 
pods  with  small,  round,  black  pea-shaped  seeds.  The 
vines  may  grow  4,6  or  8  ft.  long,  then  recline  on  the 
ground,  unless  they  find  something  up  which  to  climb. 
It  is  useful  to  sow  rye  or  wheat  with  vetches  so  that  they 
may  have  support.  In  the  north  rye  may  be  the  better 
plant;  from  Tennessee  southward  wheat  is  better.  The 
mixture  of  vetch  and  wheat  makes  a  prodigious  amount 
of  forage  for  spring  cutting  which  may  be  used  for  soil- 


184  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


Hairy  Vetch    (Vicia  villosa), 


ESTABLISHING  VETCHES  185 

ing  cows  or  other  animals.  I  have  seen  astonishing 
growths  of  this  plant  in  Oregon,  Washington,  Tennessee, 
Alabama,  Mississippi  and  other  states.  It  is  not,  so  far 
as  I  have  seen,  regularly  in  use  by  farmers  anywhere. 

The  difficulties  as  to  vetch  are  several.  The  seed  is 
expensive,  costing  now  (1910)  6  cents  a  pound,  and  it 
requires  70  to  75  pounds  to  the  acre  for  a  good  seeding. 
Then  the  seed  lies  in  the  earth  sometimes  for  a  year  or 
more  and  may  come  up  in  small  grain  and  prove  a  trou- 
blesome weed,  though  it  will  not  interfere  with  any  cul- 
tivated crop.  It  must  absolutely  have  inoculation  or  it 
makes  very  slender  growth.  I  know  of  no  legume  de- 
pending more  on  its  bacteria  than  the  hairy  vetch.  In 
Louisiana  I  sowed  vetches  on  sandy  loam  soil,  well  worn, 
with  the  result  that  few  plants  exceeded  a  foot  in  height, 
while  a  few  plants  accidentally  inoculated  made  a  growth 
of  many  times  that.  I  should  say  from  observation  that 
on  poor  soils  there  would  be  more  than  10  times  the 
growth  of  hairy  vetch  where  the  soil  is  inoculated  over 
where  it  is  not.  The  Alabama  station  reported  a  growth 
of  232  pounds  to  the  acre  without  inoculation  and  2,540 
pounds  with  inoculation. 

In  the  South  vetch  may  be  sown  on  Bermuda  grass 
sod,  which  may  be  disked  or  even  plowed  to  give  a  seed- 
bed. It  should,  however,  be  grazed  off  close,  or  mown 
as  soon  as  hot  weather  begins,  otherwise  its  shade  will 
destroy  the  grass.  At  the  Cornell  station  in  New  York 
three  months'  growth  of  hairy  vetch  made  6,824  pounds 
of  dry  forage  per  acre  containing  240  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
53  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  52  pounds  of  potash, 
while  during  the  same  period  cowpeas  produced  2,262 


186 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 


pounds  of  forage  per  acre,  containing  46,  23,  and  19 
pounds  respectively.  It  seems  to  me  the  one  serious  ob- 
stacle to  cultivation  of  vetch  is  the  cost  of  seed,  and  this 
the  farmer  could  in  a  measure  obviate  by  growing  his 
own  seed — a  thing  easily  enough  done.  Vetches  germi- 


Hairy  Vetch. 


Cowpea, 


nate  slowly  and  should  be  sown  early — in  northern  lati- 
tudes in  late  July,  in  the  South  as  late  as  October  and  in 
the  Gulf  States  it  may  thrive  sown  in  November,  though 
earlier  seeding  is  desirable  if  there  is  moisture  sufficient 
to  germinate  it.  Inoculation  may  be  given  by  immers- 
ing the  seed  in  very  muddy  water,  made  by  stirring  in- 


VETCH  AND  CRIMSON  CLOVER  187 

fected  earth  from  some  inoculated  vetch  field  into  a  buck- 
et of  water.  This  will  give  a  thin  coating  of  mud  on 
each  seed  and  the  inoculation  will  be  found  efficient. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  at  once  without  exposure  to 
light. 

Vetch  and  Crimson  Clover. — My  friend,  L.  W.  Lighty 
of  Adams  Co.,  Pa.,  a  shrewd,  practical  Dutchman,  has 
this  to  say  in  the  "National  Stockman  and  Farmer" 
about  the  use  of  these  two  legumes  in  Pennsylvania: 

"Sow  any  time  after  the  middle  of  July  to  the  end  of  October. 
If  you  never  grew  vetch  before  it  may  not  succeed  so  well  the  first 
year  as  it,  like  all  legumes,  does  better  on  inoculated  soil  and  the  in- 
oculation comes  from  the  growing  of  the  plant.  My  preference  is 
to  sow  a  half-bushel  of  vetch  and  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half 
of  rye  to  the  acre.  If  you  do  not  care  to  plow  early  in  the  spring, 
and  the  land  is  fairly  fertile,  a  peck  of  vetch  and  three  pecks  of  rye 
will  make  quite  a  mass  of  vegetable  matter.  I  prefer  heavy  seed- 
ing so  as  to  get  a  dense  growth  and  prevent  washing  during  win- 
ter and  it  also  gives  me  more  material  to  plow  under  early  in  the 
spring.  Would  it  pay  to  sow  vetch  the  last  working  of  corn  if  the 
stubble  is  to  be  sowed  to  wheat?  No,  the  growth  of  the  vetch  is 
best  in  cool  weather,  so  you  would  have  but  little  growth,  besides 
it  would  be  hard  to  destroy  all  the  vetch  plants  and  they  would  be 
in  your  wheat  like  cockle,  and  almost  impossible  to  separate  if  you 
would  wish  to  sell  the  wheat.  Vetch,  like  rye,  may  be  a  weed  and 
you  do  not  want  it  in  your  seed  or  selling  wheat.  Would  not  crim- 
son clover  be  preferable  to  vetch?  It  may  be,  in  fact  is,  in  some 
soils  preferable  to  vetch.  I  note  wherever  there  is  a  good  propor- 
tion of  sharp  sand  in  the  soil,  crimson  clover  flourishes,  but  in  the 
clayey  or  shaley  soils,  devoid  of  sand,  crimson  clover  is  an  unsat- 
isfactory manurial  crop  because  it  thrives  so  poorly.  Rye  and 
vetch  are  generally  preferable  because  they  grow  and  thrive  under 
the  most  adverse  conditions.  Being  a  sort  of  weed,  they  flourish 
in  spite  of  neglect,  do  not  winterkill,  nor  do  insects  disturb  them. 
Crimson  clover  is  delicate  and  wants  things  just  so  or  it  will  quit. 
I  prefer  the  robust,  rough-and-ready  plant  that  is  there  when  I 
come  to  plow  it  under.  If  crimson  clover  succeeds  on  your  soil 


188  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

sow  it,  but  rather  than  have  the  soil  lie  bare  during  winter,  by  all 
means  sow  rye  and  vetch.  As  a  soiling  crop  this  rye  and  vetch 
mixture  is  superior  to  the  crimson  clover." 

Japan  Clover  (Lespedeza  striata). — Japan,  clover  came 
to  us  probably  in  packing  about  tea  chests  or  china  ware 
in  1850.  It  spread  rapidly  over  the  South  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  is  now  found  nearly  everywhere  south  of 
the  Ohio  River,  especially  on  poor  soils  where  bluegrass 
and  other  perennial  grasses  are  not  seen.  It  is  most 
abundant  and  luxuriant  in  the  Gulf  States.  It  has  an 
astonishing  ability  to  grow  on  poor  soils,  yet  makes  most 
growth  on  rich  soils.  Ordinarily  it  is  only  4"  to  6"  high ; 
in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana  on  rich  bottom  lands  it  may 
be  2'  or  more  high  and  make  3  or  more  tons  of  hay  to 
the  acre  at  one  cutting.  Japan  clover  is  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  large,  firm  nodules  and  is  an  efficient  nitrogen- 
gatherer,  greatly  enriching  soils  on  which  it  grows.  It  is 
an  annual  clover  and  comes  each  year  from  seed.  It  seeds 
well,  and,  once  established,  is  nearly  permanent  unless  the 
land  is  cultivated.  Animals  can  hardly  graze  it  close 
enough  to  prevent  its  seeding,  since  when  close-grazed  it 
sends  out,  close  to  the  earth,  branches  that  bloom  and 
bear  seed.  When  undisturbed  it  has  an  erect  growth,  es- 
pecially when  growing  thick  on  rich  soil. 

All  animals  relish  Japan  clover  and  thrive  on  it.  It 
is  invaluable  as  an  admixture  with  Bermuda  pasture.  It 
is  said  to  uproot  broom  sedge,  though  I  doubt  its  ability 
to  do  this  on  ordinary  soils.  It  is  not  insistent  in  demand- 
ing1 a  good  soil  or  a  soil  rich  in  lime ;  in  fact,  it  will  grow 
on  a  greater  variety  of  inferior  soils  than  any  other  use- 
ful clover.  Japan  clover  "comes  of  itself"  on  many  soils, 


SEEDING  LESPEDEZA  189 

yet  it  is  being  more  and  more  sown  with  profit-,  especially 
along  the  rich  alluvial  lands  of  the  lower  reaches  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  It  is  not  intolerant  of  occasional  flood- 
ing of  the  ground  so  the  water  does  not  stand  too  long  or 
become  too  deep,  hence  it  is  adapted  to  poorly-drained 
southern  lands  as  well  as  to  hillsides.  I  have  seen  it 
grow  luxuriantly  on  hard  subsoil  along  railways  where 
every  bit  of  the  topsoil  had  been  removed.  Speaking  for 
Oklahoma,  John  Fields  remarks  that  it  is  not  worth  while 
sowing  lespedeza  where  it  does  not  come  of  itself;  that 
it  is  not  adapted  to  drouth  conditions.  In  Louisiana  it 
is  often  sown  with  winter  oats,  the  oats  being  sown  in 
the  fall  and  the  lespedeza  in  the  spring.  After  the  oats 
are  taken  off,  the  lespedeza  uses  the  land  effectually  and 
makes  a  crop  of  hay  in  the  fall.  The  seed  is  best  sown 
on  bare  earth  and  either  left  uncovered,  when  it  will  be 
covered  by  the  beating  rains,  or  else  lightly  brushed  in. 
It  will  not  endure  much  earth  upon  it.  It  may  be  sown  at 
any  time  in  spring  or  late  winter. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — Ordinarily  the  seed  is  sold 
in  the  pod  and  a  half  bushel  or  more  is  sown  to  the  acre. 
If  one  gets  at  first  a  thin  stand  of  lespedeza,  one  may 
hope  that  the  second  year  it  will  have  thickened  by  its 
own  self-sown  seed.  In  mowing  lespedeza  for  hay,  one 
must  use  caution  or  one  will  lose  the  stand.  When  it 
grows  thick  and  tall  there  is  danger  that  the  mower  may 
cut  off  all  the  bloom  and  seed.  Some  growers  remove 
two  or  three  sections  from  their  mower  knives  so  that 
strips  are  left  uncut  for  the  purpose  of  maturing  seed. 
Lespedeza  hay  is  richer  in  fat  than  alfalfa  and  compares 
well  with  it  in  all  points.  It  is  probably  a  more  valuable 


190  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

hay.  It  is  highly  prized  wherever  it  has  been  fed.  Many 
old  abandoned  cotton  plantations  since  the  advent  of  the 
boll  weevil  have  been  sown  in  part  to  lespedeza  with 
first-rate  profit.  It  is  common  to  mow  it  off  early  in  the 
summer  to  remove  the  weeds  and  wild  growths  so  that 
the  lespedeza  hay  may  be  nearly  pure. 

After  studying  the  problem  of  live  stock  production  in 
the  Gulf  States  for  several  years,  I  am  convinced  that 
this  clover  should  be  the  first  to  be  sown.  It  has  not  as 
high  value,  acre  for  acre,  as  vetches  or  alfalfa;  it  will 
not  grow  to  add  fertility  in  frosty  weather;  in  fact,  it  is 
a  very  tender  annual,  but  it  is  so  humble,  so  little  insist- 
ent on  good  treatment,  that  one  can  take  an  old  field  too 
poor  and  undrained  for  good  farming,,  plow  lightly,  level 
off,  and  sow  to  lespedeza,  and  presto !  one's  land  is  occu- 
pied, at  work,  and  getting  richer  even  if  slowly,  will  sup- 
port stock,  and  more  than  hold  its  own  till  one  can  get 
ready  to  take  it  seriously  in  hand  with  drains,  deep  plow- 
ing and  fertilization  preparatory  to  growing  the  larger 
legumes  or  corn.  On  the  richer  parts  of  his  land  he  can 
grow  from  i  to  4  tons  to  the  acre  of  prime,  nutritious 
hay  if  he  feeds  it,  and  bringing  a  good  price  if  he  sells 
it. 

Sainfoin  (Esparcette)  and  French  Clover  (Onobrychis 
sativa). — I  have  never  seen  a  successful  field  of  this  beau- 
tiful and  valuable  clover  in  America.  In  France  it  is 
much  used  both  in  mixtures  with  alfalfa  (lucerne)  and 
other  clovers,  and  sown  alone.  On  the  best  farms  near 
Paris  it  is  nearly  always  a  part  of  the  composition  of  the 
meadow.  In  England  it  is  highly  esteemed  for  dry,  cal- 
careous soils.  It  is  somewhat  slow  to  establish  but  when 


TRIALS 'WITH  SAINFOIN  i9i 

it  is  developed  it  is  very  productive  and  the  hay  is  of  su- 
perior quality.  It  likes  dry,  calcareous  soils  which  it  is 
said  to  enrich  remarkably.  It  seems  altogether  unrea- 
sonable to  me  that  it  should  not  find  somewhere  in  Amer- 
ica a  congenial  soil  and  climate.  I  have  tried  it  in  Utah 
with  only  moderate  success.  I  suggest  that  probably  this 
clover  is  only  another  instance  of  the  necessity  of  inoc- 
ulation. True,  most  soils  in  America  are  lime-deficient, 
yet  there  are  other  soils  in  the  West  and  Southwest  that 
have  a  considerable  excess  of  lime  in  their  composition 
and  are  well  drained.  I  have  seen  soils  in  Colorado,  New 
Mexico  and  Texas  with  from  4  per  cent  to  25  per  cent  of 
carbonate  of  lime  in  their  composition,  surely  enough  to 
satisfy  even  sainfoin.  It  is  not  worth  while  for  the  farm- 
er to  work  with  sainfoin  before  his  experiment  station 
has  shown  him  how  to  grow  it,  though  I  assuredly  look 
for  it  to  come  into  use  in  America  some  day.  There  are 
hills  of  limestone  gravel  in  northern  Illinois  and  south- 
ern Wisconsin  that  should  take  it ;  there  are  limestone 
hills  in  Kentucky  now  growing  sweet  clover  that  might 
take  it,  and  then  the  vast  areas  of  lime  made  soils  of  the 
Southwest.  I  suggest  to  directors  of  experiment  stations 
that  they  secure  from  some  source,  perhaps  from  the 
farms  of  France,  soil  in  which  good  sainfoin  is  now  grow- 
ing, choose  a  dry  plot  of  land,  lime  it  very  heavily  with 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  make  serious  effort  to  learn  what 
inoculated  sainfoin  will  do  in  America. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — In  Europe  it  is  common  to 
sow  about  60  to  80  pounds  of  unhulled  seed  to  the  acre. 
Clovers  or  alfalfa  are  sometimes  sown  with  the  sainfoin. 
The  seed  can  not  push  up  through  any  great  depth  of 


192  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

earth,  so  the  seedbed  must  be  fine  and  level  so  that  the 
seeds  may  be  put  in  at  a  uniform  depth  of  about  i"  or  a 
little  less.  It  is  sown  in  spring.  In  Europe  are  fields  20 
years  old  in  productive  condition.  It  endures  drouth 
well  and  has  enriched  many  poor,  half-barren,  hilly,  cal- 
careous lands  of  Europe.  I  venture  here  to  prophesy  that 
we  shall  learn  to.  use  this  splendid  clover  some  day  in 
parts  of  America  and  that  it  will  do  us  great  good.  I 
would  never  sow  it  without  inoculation,  and  at  this  writ- 
ing that  is  difficult  to  secure. 

Field  Pea  (Pisum  sativum  var.  aruense). — Field  peas 
must  have  mention  because  they  are  of  importance  in 
Canada,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  New  England  and  north- 
ern New  York  and  in  high  altitudes  of  the  western  moun- 
tains. They  are  a  close  relative  of  the  common  garden 
pea,  a  mere  variety,  more  resistant  to  cold  and  hardier 
to  endure  field  conditions.  They  produce  smaller  peas 
than  the  garden  sorts,  and  are  smooth,  while  garden  peas 
are  commonly  wrinkled.  The  growth  of  vine  is  remark- 
able, the  Golden  Vine  variety  having  a  length  often  ex- 
ceeding 10'.  As  the  vines  get  older  the  leaves  drop  and 
the  stems  become  bare.  The  Utah  station  reports  the 
greatest  yield  of  both  green  forage  and  dry  matter  when 
the  plants  were  in  bloom,  water-free  substance,  4,997 
pounds  to  the  acre.  Field  peas  are  commonly  grown  for 
soiling  purposes,  mixed  with  oats.  They  grow  best  in 
cool  weather  and  should  be  sown  as  early  as  .possible  in 
spring.  In  some  soils  they  may,  indeed,  be  sown  very 
late  in  the  fall,  just  as  winter  sets  in,  and  they  will  lie 
dormant  till  early  spring  and  then  grow.  Because  sandy 
soils  are  first  dry  and  warm  in  spring,  field  peas  are  com- 
monly found  to  thrive  best  there.  They  like  calcareous 


CANADA    FIELD    PEAS 


193 


Canada  Pea. 


194  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

soils  or  soils  having  been  well  limed.  They  need  the  right 
bacteria  in  the  soil  to  cause  modulation  of  their  roots,  but 
commonly  this  is  naturally  present.  Any  soil  that  grows 
common  garden  peas  well  will  inoculate  field  peas.  They 
should  be  sown  deeply,  on  deeply-plowed  land.  Often 
they  are  covered  with  the  plow  or  drilled  in  very  deep. 
In  the  Gulf  States  they  should  be  sown  in  November; 
they  will  often  make  growth  in  mild  winters. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — From  i  to  3  bushels  to  the 
acre  are  sown.  When  in  drills,  2  bushels  will  be  found 
sufficient  seed.  Wheat  is,  in  the  South,  a  better  crop  to 
sow  with  peas  than  oats,  the  standby  of  the  North.  Peas 
have  considerable  power  to  enrich  soils,  as  was  shown  by 
their  behavior  in  the  San  Luis  Valley  of  Colorado.  Lands 
there  long  devoted  to  wheat  ceased  to  produce  well  and 
were  sown  to  field  peas,  the  seed  coming  first  from  the 
Mexicans.  The  peas  throve  and  were  either  grazed  off 
by  sheep  and  pigs  or  mown  and  fed  in  corrals  in  winter. 
Afterward  an  astonishing  rejuvenation  of  the  soil  was 
observed.  The  peas  also  proved  very  profitable  as  fat- 
tening feed  for  lambs,  sheep,  cattle  and  pigs.  The 
altitude  there  is  about  7,000  feet.  Irrigation  furnishes 
a  soil  always  moist  and  the  climate  is  cool  with  especially 
cool  nights.  There  are  other  valleys  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains too  high  for  alfalfa  and  cool  enough  for  peas,  which 
do  not  resent  an  occasional  light  frost.  The  dry  winters 
usual  to  those  regions  permit  the  feeding  off  of  the  peas 
with  very  slight  expense,  and  the  manure  made  is  dropped 
on  the  land. 

In  the  cornbelt  region  peas  are  little  used,  ancl  in  cen-^ 
tral  Ohio  they  have  with  me  proved  less  profitable  than 


COWPEAS   DESCRIBED 


195 


other  forage  crops.  I 
have  confidence  in 
them  for  the  North, 
the  mountains,  and 
the  South  where  there 
is  warmth  enough  for 
them  to  grow  the 
winter  long. 

Cowpca. — The  cow- 
pea,  called  appropri- 
ately in  Europe  the 
China  bean  (Vigua 
sinensis  or  Vigna  cat- 
jang) ,  is  not  properly 
speaking  a  pea,  but 
resembles  more  the 
garden  bean.  It  is  an 
annual  plant  of  great 
importance  in  the 
South,  and,  though 
not  properly  making 
either  meadow  or  pas- 
ture, must  have  brief 
mention  here.  The 
strong  points  of  the 
cowpea  are  that  it  will 
grow  on  very  poor 
soil,  and  that  it  is 
very  soon  inoculated 
b  y  natural  means. 


Cowpea  plants  with  roots  41"  long. 


196  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

though  inoculation  may  come  sparingly  the  first  year.  It 
enriches  soils,  as  do  all  legumes,  but  for  enriching  quite 
poor  soils  it  is  perhaps  better  than  almost  any  other.  It 
makes  good  forage  somewhat  difficult  to  cure  into  hay. 
The  seeds  are  good  food  for  man  or  beast.  It  is  not  in- 
sistent on  the  soil  being  sweet,  as  are  most  legumes,  but 
it  will  not  grow  in  wet  soil.  The  richer  the  soil  is  in  min- 
eral elements  the  better  the  growth  of  peas.  It  gathers 
sufficient  nitrogen  from  the  air  by  the  aid  of  its  root  nod- 
ules and  bacteria,  but  must  have  phosphorus  and  perhaps 
potassium  fed  it,  the  latter  being  most  commonly  needed 
on  sandy  soils.  There  are  very  many  varieties  of  cow- 
peas;  among  the  most  common  in  use  are  Whippoorwill 
and  Unknown  used  in  the  South,  and  Black,  a  good  va- 
riety for  the  North,  though  it  may  not  mature  seeds  there. 
The  Iron  pea  is  immune  to  the  cowpea  wilt,  so  it  has 
value  in  regions  subject  to  that  disease.  There  is  also  a 
wild  cowpea  growing  in  Louisiana  that  perpetuates  it- 
self from  year  to  year  and  makes  much  forage.  The 
northern  limit  of  profitable  cultivation  of  the  cowpea  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  limit  of  the  larger  dent  va- 
rieties of  corn,  though  it  can  be  grown  much  farther 
north  and  will  do  fairly  well.  As  cowpeas  love  sun  and 
warm  soil,  it  is  not  well  to  plant  them  until  the  earth  is 
warm,  say  10  days  or  two  weeks  after  the  usual  corn- 
planting  time.  The  lightest  frost  is  fatal  to  the  cowpea. 

Method  of  Seeding  Cowpeas. — To  secure  a  good  crop 
of  peas  one  should  plow  and  prepare  the  land  well.  The 
seed  is  better  sown  in  drills  30"  or  more  apart,  and  culti- 
vated once  or  twice.  Two  or  three  pecks  of  seed  will 
sow  an  acre  in  drills.  A  larger  amount  of  seed  is  com- 


MAKING  COW  PEA   HAY 


197 


monly  secured  when  planted  in  drills,  but  for  hay  it  is 
common  to  sow  broadcast  and  cover  by  disking  or  with 
shallow  plowing.  Thus  sown,  a  bushel  or  more  of  seed 
is  required  if  the  crop  is  to  be  mown  off  for  hay.  The 


A    Rack    for    Curing    Cowpea    Hay. 

cultivation  should  leave  the  land  as  level  as  is  conveni- 
ent. Since  cowpeas  are  weak-stemmed  plants,  it  is  desir- 
able to  plant  something  with  them  that  will  hold  them  up. 
Soybeans  planted  thin  are  used  for  this  purpose,  as  also 
is  sorghum.  The  latter  makes  good  growth  with  cow- 


198 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


peas  and  together  they  make  much  good  forage,  though 
it  is  hard  to  cure. 

Making  Cowpea  Hay. — There  is  no  easy  way  of  mak- 
ing cowpea  hay.  The  Tennessee  station  uses  frames 
made  of  four  upright  timbers  about  9'  long,  bolted  to- 


Cowpea  Hay  Cocked   Over  a  Rack. 

gether  at  the  top  and  spread  below  like  a  tripod  with 
cross  pieces  that  hold  the  vines  off  the  ground.  On  these 
frames  green  forage  can  be  cured  in  large  cocks  of  maybe 
500  pounds  weight.  In  Bulletin  No.  40  of  the  Mississippi 
station  is  given  an  account  of  how  to  cure  cowpea  hay. 


MAKING  COWPEA  HAY 


199 


The  mower  is  started  in  the  morning  as  soon  as  the  dew 
is  off,  and  run  till  noon.  As  soon  as  the  top  of  the  vine 
is  well  wilted  it  is  run  over  with  a  tedder.  When  the 
crop  is  very  heavy,  the  tedder  is  used  a  second  time. 
Vines  that  have  been  cut  in  the  morning  and  teddered  in 


Cowpea    Hay    Rack    Ready   for   Moving:. 

the  afternoon  are  usually  dry  enough  to  put  in  small 
cocks  the  next  afternoon,  and  if  the  weather  promises  fa- 
vorable they  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cocks  for  two. 
or  three  days  before  they  are  hauled  to  the  barn.  If  it 
should  rain  before  the  vines  are  put  in  cocks  they  are  not: 


200  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

touched  until  the  surface  is  well  dried,  and  are  then  ted- 
dered  as  though  freshly  cut.  We  find  the  only  safe  plan  is 
to  put  the  vines  in  a  stack  covered  with  straw  for  a  few 
weeks,  or,  still  better,  in  the  barn,  where  they  should  not 
be  piled  too  deep.  After  a  month  the  hay  may  be  baled 
with  safety  if  it  appears  then  to  be  well  dried  out. 

Harvesting  Cowpea  Seed. — Commonly  the  seed  is 
picked  by  hand  as  the  pods  ripen,  negro  women  usually 
doing  the  work.  This  is  a  rather  slow  and  costly  method. 
The  vines  may  be  cut  and  threshed  with  a  special  pea 
thresher.  After  being  threshed  the  haulm  is  readily  eat- 
en by  stock.  The  use  of  this  machine  should  make  cow- 
pea  seed  cheaper,  the  chief  difficulty  in  using  the  plant 
having  been  the  cost  of  seed. 

Cowpeas  in  Corn. — Cowpeas  are  commonly  planted  in 
corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation.  They  may  be 
sown  broadcast  or  put  in  with  a  drill.  In  the  South  there 
may  be  much  growth  during  and  after  the  ripening  of  the 
corn,  and  a  notable  gain  in  fertility.  The  peas  may  be 
harvested  or  fed  off  by  pigs  or  other  animals  or  all  the 
growth  left  to  enrich  the  soil.  The  peas  may  be  drilled  at 
the  time  the  corn  is  planted,  or  soon  after.  Thus  planted 
they  may  make  too  much  growth  for  the  best  develop- 
ment of  the  corn,  though  some  experimenters  believe  that 
the  corn  is  fed  with  nitrogen  directly  from  the  associa- 
tion of  the  peas.  The  mass  of  corn  and  peas  may  be  put 
into  the  silo.  Commonly,  soybeans  planted  with  corn 
give  better  results  for  the  silo. 

The  Cowpea  as  a  Soil  Enricher. — The  cowpea  is  to 
the  South  what  clover  is  to  the  North  and  alfalfa  to 
the  West.  It  is  a  stepping-stone  to  sufficient  fertility 


YIELDS  OF  COWPEA   HAY 


201 


for  better  farming.  Leng  southern  summers  are  longer 
than  the  corn  crop  can  utilize;  the  cowpea  fills  in  the 
space  and  keeps  the  land  busy  till  fall,  meanwhile  gather- 
ing humus-making  material  and  nitrogen.  Two  tons 
of  cowpea  vines  to  the  acre  equal  in  nitrogen  content 
600  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda.  The  cowpea  may  not 
always  enrich  soils.  Mooers  found  at  the  Tennessee 
station  that  where  cowpeas  and  wheat  alternated  in  rota- 


Cowpeas    in    a    Southern   Field. 

tion,  and  the  peas  were  removed  from  the  land,  the  yield 
of  wheat  was  reduced  over  adjacent  plots  where  wheat 
followed  wheat.  In  Louisiana,  turning  under  cowpeas 
increased  the  yield  of  sugar-cane  the  first  year  2.91  tons, 
the  second  year  3.69  tons  and  the  third  year  0.82  tons. 
The  soil  on  which  this  cane  grew  was  the  alluvial  soil  of 
the  Mississippi  River  Delta,  fully  supplied  with  phos- 
phorus and  potassium,  lacking  only  nitrogen  and  humus. 
The  Delaware  station  finds  that  a  maximum  crop  of  al- 


2,02  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

falfa  yielded  1,230  pounds  of  protein  (containing  200 
pounds  of  nitrogen)  per  acre  while  maximum  crops  of 
cowpeas  and  crimson  clover  yielded  about  725  pounds 
each  of  protein  (115  pounds  of  nitrogen)  per  acre.  Since 
cowpeas  and  crimson  clover  may  be  grown  on  land  where 
alfalfa  fails,  they  will  perform  its  work.  It  is  not  worth 
while  growing  cowpeas  where  alfalfa  thrives,  except 
that  they  may  help  prepare  the  land  for  the  better  peren- 
nial legume.  In  Virginia  cowpeas  often  precede  sowing 
land  to  bluegrass,  and  with  marked  results. 

Comparing  Cowpeas  with  Soybeans. — I  have  tested 
these  plants  side  by  side  in  Louisiana,  and  concluded  that 
in  nearly  all  ways  soybeans  w^ere  superior.  The  soys 
made  more  forage  and  more  seed  and  were  more  easily 
harvested.  Cowpeas,  however,  are  better  adapted  to  rude 
methods  of  cultivation,  and  may  do  more  to  smother 
out  weeds. 

The  Field  of  the  Cow  pea. — To  utilize  the  soil  left 
vacant  by  ripening  corn  and  gather  nitrogen  for  a  suc- 
ceeding crop,  to  prepare  poor  land  for  cultivation,  to 
yield  nutritious  forage  hard  to  gather  but  worth  the 
effort  on  the  southern  farm,  to  store  in  the  soil  humus 
and  nitrogen  to  help  a  following  crop,  to  make  a  catch 
crop  for  feeding  off  the  land  with  hogs,  to  furnish 
southern  farmers  with  a  ready  source  of  protein  for 
dairy  or  feedlot — these  are  among  the  uses  of  the  cow- 
pea.  It  is  hardly  comparable  with  clover  or  alfalfa,  but 
even  on  farms  where  these  may  grow  it  will  often  find 
temporary  use. 

Velvet  Bean  (Miicnna  utilis). — This  is  a  bean  having 
a  liking  for  hot,  moist  weather  and  sandy  or  fakly  well- 


COWPEAS  RANK  GROWERS  203 

drained  soils.  It  is  a  rampant  grower  and  will  make 
vines  30'  to  50'  long  in  a  season  and  in  Florida  will  pro- 
"duce  20  to  30  bushels  of  beans  per  acre.  It  makes  over 
the  land  a  dense  tangle  of  vines  that  are  commonly  al- 
lowed to  lie  for  a  year  and  decay,  before  they  are  turned 
under.  Hogs  and  cattle  thrive  on  the  beans.  The  vines 


Velvet  Bean,   showing  leaves,   flowers,    and  young  pods. 

are  sometimes  made  into  hay  and  yield  from  2  to  4 
tons  per  acre.  The  effect  on  the  soil  of  velvet  beans 
is  much  the  same  as  of  cowpeas,  but  they  are  not  adapted 
to  northern  latitudes.  On  Woodland  Farm,  in  central 
Ohio,  they  made  one  year  a  respectable  growth,  but  ani- 
mals accustomed  to  other  forage  would  not  eat  them 


204  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

well  green.  The  soil-enriching  powers  of  velvet  beans 
are  about  the  same  as  of  cowpeas.  The  effect  of  grow- 
ing them  in  sandy  soils  far  south  is  most  beneficial,  and 
is  much  enhanced  when  they  are  liberally  fertilized  with 
phosphorus  and  potassium.  Much  better  results  with 
velvet  beans  would  be  secured  if  the  vines  were  turned 
under  and,  the  year  following  their  growth,  the  field 
planted  to  some  crop  that  could  utilize  the  nitrogen 
gathered.  This  could  readily  be  done  with  the  large 
disk  plows  made  for  deep  tillage. 

Soybean  (Glycine  hispida). — This  plant  gives  promise 
of  becoming  a  great  factor  in  American  farming,  espe- 
cially in  regions  parallel  in  location  to  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  though  it  thrives  well  as  far  north  as  the 
4Oth  parallel  and  is  grown  more  or  less  for  100  miles 
farther  north,  and  as  far  south  as  central  or  southern 
Louisiana.  There  are  many  varieties  of  the  soybean 
which  have  been  grown  as  feed  for  men  and  animals 
for  untold  centuries  in  China,  Japan  and  Korea.  It  is 
a  comparatively  recent  comer  to  America,  but  already 
promises  to  displace  the  cowpea  in  many  situations  and 
to  supplement  corn  in  rations  for  farm  animals  in  such 
states  as  Tennessee,  Oklahoma  and  Kansas.  At  pres- 
ent, its  most  enthusiastic  advocates  are  properly  to  be 
found  in  Tennessee,  where  soil  and  climate  and  habits 
of  men  seem  congenial  to  it.  The  soybean  is  distinctly 
unlike  any  other  legume.  It  commonly  stands  erect, 
though  there  are  trailing  varieties,  has  strong,  hairy 
stems,  a  strong  tap  root,  broad  leaves,  small,  purplish 
flowers,  and  short  pods  downy  and  with  rather  few 
seeds.  The  pods  are  often  attached  to  the  main  stem 


THE  SOYBEAN  DESCRIBED 


205 


and  branches.  The  seeds  are  of  several  colors :  green,  yel- 
low, white  and  black.  Soybeans  seem  to  have  more 
varieties  and  variation  than  the  cowpea.  They  vary 
in  height  from  2'  to  6',  and  in  time  of  maturity  from 


206  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

90  days  to  so  long  a  season  that  they  will  mature  only 
in  the  region  of  cotton-growing.  Soybeans  love  sun 
and  thrive  best  if  planted  when  the  earth  is  warm;  they 
are  not  hurt  by  cool  weather  so  much  as  cowpeas  and 
may  be  planted  somewhat  earlier,  though  it  is  better 
to  plant  them  a  little  later  than  one  plants  corn.  They 
are  best  planted  in  drills  as  close  as  can  be  consistent 
with  the  use  of  horse  cultivation.  I  have  had  good  suc- 
cess spacing  the  rows  2'  apart,  though  for  large  horses 
a  little  more  room  is  desirable.  The  beans  are  not  easy 
to  get  up.  The  soil  should  be  made  fine  and  level  so 
that  they  can  be  drilled  in  at  uniform  depth,  and  the 
seeds  must  not  be  deep,  about  il/2"  being  the  maximum 
depth  allowable. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — The  amount  of  seed  re- 
quired is  about  20  pounds  per  acre.  It  pays  well  to 
cultivate  soybeans  carefully  till  they  cover  the  ground 
and  shade  it  enough  to  keep  down  weeds.  When  the 
seeds  are  ripe  comes  the  problem  of  harvesting  the  crop 
— a  problem  yet  in  solution.  The  most  economical  way, 
if  one  wishes  to  avoid  loss  of  beans,  is  to  cut  with  a, 
short,  strong  scythe  one  row  at  a  time,  or  to  use  a  hand 
knife  like  a  strong,  short  sickle,  taking  hold  of  the  plants 
with  the  left  hand,  cutting  them  off  and  laying  them 
aside  in  bunches  to  dry.  Commonly  they  are  cut  with 
mowers  or  self-rake  reapers  and  left  to  lie  a  few  days 
in  the  sun  to  dry.  They  may  then  be  threshed  with 
a  common  thresher  or  a  bean  thresher.  There  may  be 
much  loss  from  the  pods  popping  open  as  the  plants  lie 
drying  on  the  ground.  Pigs  can  afterward  glean  the 
field.  When  cut  for  forage  they  are  mown  off  before 


SOYBEANS    AND    INOCULATION 


207 


Typical  807  Bean  Plant. 


208  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  pods  are  ripe,  and  made  into  hay.    They  cure  far  more 
easily  than  cowpeas. 

Soybeans  and  Inoculation. — It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
soybeans  will,  if  grown  on  the  same  ground  consecu- 
tively, inoculate  themselves  the  second  year.  There  is 
yet  some  undiscovered  reason  for  this  fact,  which  was 
first  pointed  out  by  Prof.  H.  Carman  in  Kentucky  Bul- 
letin 98,  page  19.  Certain  varieties  of  soybeans  become 
inoculated  much  sooner  than  other  varieties — another 
unexplained  fact.  One  should  always,  where  possible, 
grow  soybeans  for  two  or  more  years  successively  on 
the  same  land.  Artificial  inoculation  is  very  easily  per- 
formed; one  can  take  earth  where  inoculated  soys  have 
grown,  make  it  fine  by  sifting,  wet  the  seeds  just  as 
one  is  ready  to  plant,  and  mix  with  them  the  dry,  sifted 
earth  till  they  are  dry  enough  to  plant.  Or,  one  can 
simply  drill  the  dry,  sifted  earth  along  with  the  beans, 
which  may  work  better  with  machine-drilling.  Unless 
the  soil  is  very  rich,  the  growth  with  inoculation  will  be 
much  better  than  without.  The  nodules  of  soybeans  are 
very  large  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  secured  from 
the  air  must  be  considerable. 

Uses  of  Soybeans. — The  whole  crop  may,  mixed  with 
corn,  be  put  into  the  silo,  and  it  is  believed  that  thus 
cows  may  have  their  protein  cheaply  supplied.  Tests 
with  beef  cattle  do  not  show  superiority  of  this  mixed 
silage  over  that  from  corn  alone.  The  beans  may  be  fed 
as  a  soiling  crop,  and  this  is  one  of  the  best  uses.  The 
seeds  may  be  allowed  to  ripen,  threshed  and  ground  and 
fed  to  pigs  to  furnish  protein  for  balancing  a  ration  of 
corn.  Remarkable  results  have  been  achieved  in  this  way. 


CUTTING  SOYBEANS  FOR  HAY 


209 


as  one  can  find  by  consulting  bulletins  of  the  Kansas, 
Oklahoma  and  Ohio  stations.  The  crop  may  be  fed  off 
by  cattle  on  the  ground,  followed  by  pigs  to  glean  the 
fallen  beans,  and  thus  remarkable  gains  have  been  shown. 
The  Tennessee  and  Alabama  stations  have  published  valu- 
able bulletins  detailing  work  in  this  line.  Soybeans  may 
be  cut  for  hay  and  results  from  feeding  the  hay  show  that 
it  is  about  as  good  as  alfalfa.  When  cut  for  hay  the 


A  Field  of  Soy  Beans  in  Tennessee. 

best  varieties  are  the  Mammoth  and  Ito  San.  For  hay 
soybeans  should  be  cut  when  part  of  the  seed  is  formed, 
but  before  the  pods  ripen.  Nothing  will  make  more 
or  better  growth  \vith  lambs  than  soybeans  fed  in  con- 
nection with  other  grains.  The  composition  of  soybeans 
is  such  that  it  has  a  very  high  feeding  value.  Its  pro- 
tein content  is  about  35  per  cent  and  its  fat  20  per  cent. 
There  is  no  starch  in  the  soybean.  In  Japan  an  arti- 
ficial milk  is  said  to  be  made  from  the  beans,  and  they 


210  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

are  employed  in  many  ways  as  food  for  men.  They  are 
slow  to  soften  with  boiling,  but  if  ground  into  meal  make 
delicious  soups  and  porridge.  We  have  grown  them  for 
a  number  of  years  in  field  culture  on  Woodland  Farm 
and  they  have  been  profitable,  yielding  sometimes  nearly 
30  bushels  of  beans  per  acre.  We  decide  finally,  however, 
that  where  one's  soil  is  fitted  for  corn  and  alfalfa  one 
will  usually  find  greater  profit  in  these  than  in  soybeans 
in  our  latitude,  except  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  sup- 
ply of  the  beans  for  pushing  forward  pure-bred  lambs. 
In  Louisiana  the  beans  were  much  more  profitable  than 
cowpeas  and  easier  grown  on  alluvial  soil.  I  have  de- 
voted a  good  deal  of  space  to  this  legume  because,  while 
it  is  not  strictly  a  meadow  plant,  it  is  assuming  con- 
siderable importance  at  present,  and  is  destined  to  come 
more  and  more  into  use  in  general  farm  practice,  espe- 
cially in  the  South.  Interested  readers  should  have  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  372,  from  which  I  quote : 

Comparison  of  Soybeans  and  Cowpeas. — Inasmuch  as  the  soybean 
is  adapted  to  nearly  the  same  place  in  the  farm  rotation  as  the  cow- 
pea,  a  comparison  of  the  two  plants  is  pertinent.  The  soybean  is 
determinate  in  growth;  that  is,  it  reaches  a  definite  size  and  ma- 
tures. Nearly  all  varieties  of  cowpeas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  in- 
determinate, continuing  growth  until  killed  by  frost.  Soybeans, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  varieties,  do  not  vine,  but  grow  erect 
or  nearly  erect.  Cowpeas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  viny  plants,  and 
therefore  more  difficult  to  harvest.  Soybeans  mature  all  their  pods 
at  one  time.  Cowpeas  continue  to  produce  green  pods  as  long  as 
the  plant  lives.  Soybeans  will  withstand  quite  heavy  frosts,  both 
in  the  spring,  when  young,  and  in  the  fall,  when  nearly  mature, 
while  the  same  frosts  are  fatal  to  cowpeas.  Soybeans  are  more 
drouth  resistant  than  cowpeas,  and  in  a  dry  season  will  give  much 
greater  yields ;  they  will  also  withstand  excessive  moisture  much 
better.  For  green  manuring  or  soil  improving,  the  cowpea  is  far 


CHIEF  FACTS  ABOUT  SOYBEANS  211 

more  valuable  than  the  soybean,  as  it  will  smother  weeds  much 
more  successfully.  The  value  of  the  hay  of  the  two  plants  is  near- 
ly the  same.  There  is  frequently  doubt  as  to  which  is  the  more 
desirable  to  grow.  On  relatively  poor  soil  or  when  broadcasted 
cowpeas  are  always  preferable.  When  cultivated,  the  soybean  will 
yield  the  greater  return,  and  if  cut  late  the  hay  is  more  easily  cured. 
For  growing  with  corn  or  sorghum  for  hay  or  silage  the  cowpea 
is  generally  preferable  to  the  soybean.  The  feeding  value  of  an 
acre  of  soybeans  for  beef  cattle  was  found  by  the  Tennessee  Ex- 
periment Station  to  be  about  50  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  cow- 
peas  grown  on  an  adjoining  acre.  This  was  also  approximately  the 
difference  in  yield  of  the  two  crops.  As  a  grain  producer  the  soy- 
bean is  in  every  way  preferable  to  the  cowpea,  as  it  produces  larger 
yields  of  richer  grain  and  can  be  harvested  much  more  easily.  The 
soybean,  therefore,  is  to  be  recommended  above  the  cowpea  where 
intensive  rather  than  extensive  farming  is  practicable  and  desirable. 

SUMMARY. 

For  intensive  farming  the  soybean  is  the  best  annual  legume  to 
grow  for  forage  in  the  southern  part  of  the  cottonbelt  and  into 
the  southern  part  of  the  cornbelt.  The  soybean,  whether  used  as 
hay,  grain,  straw  or  silage,  is  very  valuable  as  feed  for  live  stock. 
Soybean  hay  is  practically  identical  in  feeding  value  with  alfalfa 
and  yields  from  2  to  3  tons  per  acre.  To  make  good  soybean  hay 
the  crop  must  be  cut  when  about  half  the  pods  are  full  grown  or 
when  the  top  leaves  first  begin  to  turn  yellow.  Soybean  grain  is 
more  valuable  than  cottonseed-meal  as  a  supplemental  feed  in  the 
production  of  pork,  mutton,  wool,  beef,  milk  and  butter.  A  bushel 
of  soybeans  is  at  least  twice  as  valuable  for  feed  as  a  bushel  of 
corn.  As  the  grain  is  hard  it  is  usually  desirable  to  grind  it  into 
meal  for  feeding.  This  is  best  done  by  mixing  with  corn  before 
the  grinding  to  prevent  gumming  up  the  mill. 

Harvesting  ordinarily  should  be  done  when  the  leaves  first  begin 
to  turn  yellow,  as  the  quality  of  the  straw  rapidly  deteriorates 
thereafter  and  the  yield  of  seed  will  be  practically  as  large  as  at 
any  later  time.  From  20  to  30  bushels  of  grain  and  \y2  to  2  tons 
of  straw  per  acre  are  not  uncommon.  If  soybeans  are  grown  for 
the  seed  alone,  and  sometimes  this  is  desirable,  the  harvesting  can 
be  done  most  easily  by  waiting  until  all  the  leaves  have  fallen.  Soy- 
bean straw,  if  the  crop  is  cut  before  the  leaves  fall,  is  fully  as  val- 


212  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

uable  for  feeding  as  timothy  hay  for  cattle,  and  is  eaten  by  stock 
with  much  relish.  Even  when  the  harvesting  is  delayed  until  all 
the  leaves  have  fallen,  stock  will  eat  the  straw  readily.  Mixed  with 
corn,  soybeans  are  excellent  for  silage.  The  two  crops  may  be 
grown  together,  but  it  is  usually  better  practice  to  plant  in  separate 
fields  and  mix  when  putting  into  the  silo.  It  is  necessary  to  give 
the  soil  thorough  preparation  in  order  to  be  successful  with  soy- 
beans. Only  fresh  seed  or  seed  which  has  been  tested  for  germina- 
tion should  be  planted.  Two-year-old  seed  is  usually  not  reliable. 
The  seed  should  be  planted  shallow,  not  to  exceed  2''  in  depth,  and 
preferably  in  rows  30"  or,  better,  36"  apart  to  permit  sufficient  cul- 
tivation to  keep  down  weeds.  For  harvesting  soybeans  a  mower 
with  or  without  a  side-delivery  attachment,  a  self-rake  reaper,  or 
a  self-binder  can  be  used.  A  binder  can  be  used  only  with  the  tall 
varieties.  The  thrashing  can  be  done  with  a  grain  separator  by 
using  blank  concaves  and  running  the  cylinder  much  slower  than 
for  small  grains  or  by  the  use  of  machines  specially  designed  for 
handling  soybeans  and  cowpeas. 

Soybeans  and  cowpeas  can  be  grown  together  satisfactorily;  the 
hay  of  such  a  mixture  is  better  than  either  crop  alone  and  the  yield 
is  generally  greater.  In  planting  the  two  together  the  seed  should 
not  be  covered  too  deeply,  as  deep  planting  will  result  in  a  poor 
stand  of  soybeans.  As  a  crop  in  a  short  rotation  soybeans  are  very 
desirable.  They  can  be  grown  so  as  to  use  an  entire  season  in  the 
case  of  the  late  varieties,  or  two  crops  in  one  season  can  be  se- 
cured from  some  of  the  earlier  ones.  They  can  also  be  used  very 
advantageously  to  follow  a  small-grain  crop  the  same  season.  The 
important  commercial  varieties  of  soybeans  are  the  Mammoth,  the 
Hdllybrook,  and  the  Ito  San.  Among  the  most  valuable  new  va- 
rieties are  the  Austin,  the  Wilson,  the  Riceland,  the  Meyer,  and 
the  Haberlandt." 

Alfalfa  or  Lucerne  (Medicago  saliva). — I  have  pur- 
posely left  the  description  of  the  best  forage  plant  to 
the  last.  There  is  no  clover,  vetch,  cowpea,  soybean 
or  grass,  worth  growing  where  alfalfa  will  grow  well. 
Of  all  forage  plants  alfalfa  is  easily  queen.  It  makes 
the  greatest  weight  of  forage  during  the  year.  The 
forage  is  richer  than  almost  any  other,  and  more  palatable. 


THE  VIRTUES  OF  ALFALFA 


213 


All  animals  thrive  exceedingly  eating  alfalfa  either  green 
or  dry.  As  the  old  Roman  author  put  it,  "It  is  good 
for  all  manner  of  famished  cattle  whatever."  Alfalfa 
uses  the  whole  of  the  soil,  rooting  deeply;  it  uses  all 
of  the  season  since  it  is  hardy  and  endures  frost.  It  re- 


Young   Alfalfa  Plants    Attacked   by 
Dodder. 


Mature  Dodder  Plant  on  an  Alfalfa 
Stem. 


quires  sowing  only  once  in  several  years.  It  enriches 
soils  more  than  any  other  clover.  It  has  many  vir- 
tues and  not  one  fault  save  that  it  will  not  growr  on  im- 
poverished soils  nor  on  sour,  cold  or  wet  soils.  These 
very  faults  are  made  virtues  because  they  cause  men  to 


214  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

think  and  study  their  soils  and  become  better  farmers 
and  better  men.  The  truth  is  that  any  soil  that  will 
not  grow  alfalfa  is  seriously  deficient,  and  when  it  has 
been  so  ameliorated  that  alfalfa  thrives  on  it  the  soil 
is  fit  for  any  crop  whatever,  save  that  it  may  be  too 
full  of  nitrogen  to  grow  oats  or  other  grains  with  soft 
straw. 

Alfalfa  is  a  strongly  perennial  clover-like  legume,  hav- 
ing a  large  deeply  penetrating  root  and  a  top  with 
many  branching  stems.  It  carries  a  small  purple,  green- 
ish or  yellow  bloom,  and  the  seeds  are  arranged  in  screw- 
like  pods.  It  is  a  plant  starting  very  early  in  spring  and 
capable  of  yielding  2  to  6  or  8  crops  in  one  year,  3  cut- 
tings being  commonly  taken  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  Nebraska 
and  Colorado,  and  more  in  regions  to  the  southward. 

History. — No  one  knows  the  origin  of  alfalfa.  It 
came  to  Europe  through  the  Persians  and  was  highly 
esteemed  by  the  ancients.  It  has  long  been  cultivated 
in  Europe  under  the  name  of  "lucerne"  and  is  today 
held  in  the  highest  esteem  of  any  legume  in  France, 
Italy  and  some  other  countries  with  soil  and  climate 
adapted  to  its  culture.  Though  it  has  been  grown  many 
centuries,  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  it  has  been 
well  understood,  so  that  today  its  culture  is  being  more 
rapidly  extended  in  parts  of  Europe  than  ever  before. 
I  saw  its  introduction  pushed  in  Denmark  and  listened 
with  pleased  interest  to  accounts  of  its  virtues  and  needs, 
"that  the  soil  be  well  drained,  that  it  have  lime  enough 
and  inoculation." 

The  Spanish  people  brought  alfalfa  to  the  New  World 
from  Chili ;  it  came  to  California  whence  it  spread  to 


SOILS  FOR  ALFALFA  215 

Utah,  Colorado,  Kansas  and  the  east.  Our  grandfathers 
grew  it  too  in  a  small  way,  bringing  seed  from  France 
and  England,  and  some  few  spots,  such  as  the  lime- 
stone region  about  Onondaga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  grew  it  for 
many  years,  as  did  a  few  farmers  in  Virginia  and  else- 
where. Possibly  I  should  state  that  I  began  growing 
alfalfa  in  Utah  in  1886,  and  alfalfa  seed  was  first  sown 
on  Woodland  Farm  the  same  year  by  my  father.  In 
1900,  convinced  of  its  great  worth,  my  brothers  and  I 
began  growing  it  in  a  small  way  in  Ohio  on  the  farm 
on  which  we  still  reside.  Since  then  I  have  studied  the 
plant  in  many  states  and  foreign  countries,  and  may 
hope  to  have  been  helpful  in  getting  it  established  on 
many  farms  that  had  not  previously  grown  it. 

Soil  for  Alfalfa  Growing. — Alfalfa  roots  penetrate 
deep  and  forage  wide.  They  refuse  to  grow  in  a  wet 
soil  and  may  die  and  root  off  if  the  soil  fills  with  water 
for  even  a  few  days  in  hot  weather.  A  dry  soil,  then, 
is  the  first  requisite.  Nevertheless,  land  not  naturally 
dry  may  be  made  dry  by  drainage.  On  Woodland  Farm 
are  many  acres  growing  very  good  alfalfa  that  had  first 
to  be  drained  by  tiles.  In  tiling  land  where  alfalfa  is 
to  be  sown,  one  should  dig  trenches  3'  to  5'  deep  wher- 
ever this  is  practicable.  In  truth,  land  drained  to  a  less 
depth  than  30"  had  better  be  devoted  to  another  more 
shallow-rooted  legume.  In v  Louisiana,  however,  I  have 
seen  very  good  alfalfa  grown  where  the  permanent  water 
table  was  hardly  more  than  2'  down,  but  there  the  plant 
was  treated  almost  as -an  annual;  thriving  at  first,  it 
became  unthrifty  after  a  year  or  as  soon  as  its  roots 
had  reached  the  saturated  subsoil.  After  a  soil  is  dry, 


216  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

next  consider  its  lime  content.  Alfalfa  loves  carbonate 
of  lime.  So-called  "natural  alfalfa  soils"  are  always 
soils  heavily  charged  with  carbonate  of  lime.  The  al- 
falfa-growing soils  of  Colorado,  for  example,  contain 
from  il/2  per  cent  to  as  much  as  10  per  cent  or  more 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  same  condition  is  met  every- 
where in  the  West.  In  southeast  Missouri  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  one  finds  alfalfa  growing  vigorously;  one 
finds,  too,  a  soil  with  about  il/2  per  cent  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  In  Louisiana,  on  a  very  heavy,  tenacious  "buck- 
shot" clay  residue  from  the  overflow  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  I  found  alfalfa  thriving  well,  and  analysis  showed 
a  lime  content  of  about  il/2  per  cent  or  a  little  more. 
On  Woodland  Farm  the  subsoil  is  well  filled  with  small 
limestone  pebbles  and  the  surface  soil  of  the  best  alfalfa 
fields  will  effervesce  when  muriatic  acid  is  poured  onto 
the  soil.  A  natural  alfalfa-growing  region  is  found  in 
Alabama  and  Mississippi  on  the  rotten  limestone  of  the 
black  prairie  region.  Onondaga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  is  made 
up  largely  of  limestone  hills;  there  alfalfa  thrives.  In 
the  parts  of  France  having  most  lime  in  the  soil  one  finds 
the  most  lucerne.  In  England  it  is  grown  where  the  soil 
is  calcareous  or  lime-impregnated.  I  have  nowhere  found 
alfalfa  growing  profitably  or  well  except  on  soils  well 
filled  with  lime  either  by  nature  or  by  man. 

Soils  Can  Be  Made  Fit  to  Grow  Alfalfa. — The  fact 
that  alfalfa  is  a  lime-loving  plant  would  be  discourag- 
ing were  it  not  that  its  peculiar  requirements  are  quite 
easily  met  if  men  will  take  trouble.  For  instance,  there 
are  hardly  any  soils  less  adapted  naturally  to  alfalfa- 
growing  than  the  sands  of  the  Gulf  Coast.  These  sands 


ALFALFA  FAILURES  217 

are  deficient  in  lime  and  in  nearly  all  the  mineral  ele- 
ments of  fertility.  In  their  natural  state  they  would  not 
nourish  alfalfa  well  enough  to  keep  it  alive  for  one  year. 
Alfalfa  had  always  failed  there  until  at  last  men  learned 
of  its  lime  hunger.  Since  then,  by  using  sufficient  car- 
bonate of  lime  on  these  sandy  soils,  alfalfa-growing  has 
been  established,  and  as  healthy  alfalfa  plants  are  now 
growing  within  sight  of  the  blue  waters  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  as  can  be  found  anywhere.  If  one  wishes  al- 
falfa anywhere  one  can  have  it  if  one  is  willing  to  pay 
the  price,  and  the  price  is  simply  what  it  will  cost  to  lime 
the  soil  well,  preferably  with  unburned  raw  ground  lime- 
stone or  carbonate  of  lime,  then  to  make  the  soil  dry  and 
fertile  and  sow  seed  with  inoculation.  Success  is  abso- 
lutely certain,  given  these  conditions.  What  will  all  this 
cost?  Is  the  game  worth  the  candle? 

It  all  depends  on  what  one  is  trying  to  do,  on  one's 
ideals,  agriculturally.  It  depends  on  the  man,  as  well — 
whether  he  is  a  "first-rater"  or  content  with  things  sec- 
ond best.  It  is  easy  enough,  however,  to  estimate  what 
it  will  cost  to  make  land  ready  for  alfalfa — land  that  is 
naturally  very  deficient.  Experiments  show  that  if  one 
uses  burned  and  fresh-slaked  lime  one  will  need  from 
2  to  4  tons  to  the  acre.  More  than  this  might  decrease 
the  bacterial,  content  of  the  soil  enough  to  lessen  the 
chance  of  a  stand  and  crop.  Less  than  2  tons  to  the 
acre  would  not  do  the  trick.  If  air-slaked  lime  is  used, 
as  much  as  3  to  6  tons  to  the  acre  may  be  applied.  If 
ground  and  unburned  limestone  can  be  had,  and  this 
is  best  of  all,  one  may  use  as  much  as  one  chooses  and 
the  proper  amount  to  satisfy  will  be  found  to  be  4  to  10 


218  MEAlX)WS    AND    PASTURES 

tons  per  acre.  Useful  to  most  plants,  it  is  simply  indis- 
pensable to  alfalfa.  There  is  absolutely  no  doubt  that 
the  fresh  ground  limestone  is  safer  and  better  than  any 
other  form  of  lime  when  one  is  using  large  amounts  in 
the  soil.  I  rejoice  that  recently  many  have  been  taught 
to  believe  in  this,  and  doubtless  this  year  has  seen  applied 
to  fields  destined  to  grow  alfalfa  at  least  100,000  tons  of 
carbonate  of  lime  in  the  form  of  ground  limestone,  many 
using  4  tons  to  the  acre,  some  using  6,  some  8  and  some 
10  tons.  Further,  I  have  been  able  to  induce  manufac- 
turers to  make  portable  grinding  machines  that  will  go 
direct  to  the  farm  and  grind  into  dust  the  limestone  rocks 
that  may  be  stored  in  the  soil  or  strewn  over  it,  and 
many  of  these  machines  are  in  use  from  Pennsylvania 
to  Georgia.  I  have,  then,  a  pretty  fair  knowledge  of 
wrhat  it  will  cost  to  make  into  an  alfalfa  field  land  now 
unfit  because  of  lack  of  lime.  To  buy  ground  lime- 
stone on  cars  in  Illinois  costs  about  85  cents  a  ton—- 
this where  it  is  ground  by  the  state  with  penitentiary 
convicts.  In  other  states  private  capital  is  grinding  it 
and  selling  it  for  around  $i  to  $1.25  per  ton.  When 
it  is  shipped  and  delivered  to  farms  it  costs  commonly 
about  $2  to  $2.50  per  ton.  When  the  farmer  grinds 
it  himself  and  puts  it  on  his  soil  from  rocks  that  lay  scat- 
tered over  his  pastures  it  costs  less  than  $2  a  ton,  and 
some  estimate  it  as  low  as  $1.25.  Further,  when  land  is 
sweetened  by  the  use  of  large  amounts  of  ground  lime- 
stone, it  remains  sweet  for  many  years.  Afterward  ap- 
plication of  an  occasional  dressing  of  a  ton  to  the  acre 
will  ordinarily  suffice  in  most  regions  to  keep  established 
alfalfa  in  a  vigorous,  profitable  condition. 


LIMESTONE   AND    ALFALFA  219 

Where  is  Liming  Needed? — There  are  a  few  areas  in 
southeastern  Kansas  that  need  lime,  arid  also  in  Iowa, 
though  probably  not  very  much  of  it.  Much  land  in 
Missouri  needs  sweetening;  all  of  southern  Illinois  and 
much  of  southern  Indiana  need4t,  and  there  are  instances 
everywhere  over  Indiana  where  it  would  be  beneficial, 
and  from  Indiana  eastward  one  finds  an  increased  lime- 
hunger  in  soils  till  one  at  last  reaches  the  Atlantic  Sea- 
board. Where  it  is  not  needed  is  where  bits  and  frag- 
ments of  limestone  are  found  mixed  through  the  soil, 
left  there  by  glacial  ice  or  by  the  breaking  down  of  lime- 
stone rocks.  Nearly  the  whole  South  needs  carbonate 
of  lime  sadly,  the  exceptions  being  the  alluvial  prairie 
lands  along  the  Mississippi,  the  Red,  the  Arkansas,  and 
some  other  rivers,  and  the  black  prairie  lands  of  Ala- 
bama and  Mississippi.  Liming  is  not  commonly  needed 
where  red  clover  grows  rank  and  tall,  where  bluegrass 
comes  of  itself  and  covers,  although  there  are  exceptions 
to  that  rule,  and  I  have  seen  good  bluegrass  land  that 
grew  poor  alfalfa  till  it  was  dressed  with  carbonate  of 
lime,  after  which  it  grew  splendid  alfalfa,  and  the  blue- 
grass  too  was  greatly  improved. 

I  make  no  apology  for  spending  so  much  time  in  coup- 
ling alfalfa  with  lime  and  drainage  because  really  if  the 
reader  had  good  enough  drainage  and  plenty  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  in  his  soil  he  would  find  alfalfa  to  grow 
so  easily  that  he  would  not  trouble  to  read  this  chapter 
at  all.  And  yet  there  are  other  essentials;  they  are 
found  in  nature  associated  with  soils  calcareous  and  well 
drained,  though  when  one  is  artificially  making  such  a 
soil  one  may  require  to  supply  them. 


220  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Simple  Test  for  Lime  in  Soils. — The  old  litmus  paper 
test  for  'sour  soils  is  hardly  conclusive  to  the  alfalfa 
grower,  since  it  does  not  tell  enough.  Alfalfa  is  not 
content  with  a  soil  that  is  simply  neutral;  it  revels  in  a 
soil  fairly  alkaline  with  lime  and  there  keeps  its  most 
perfect  health.  Fortunately  the  test  for  carbonate  of 
lime  is  a  simple  one.  Muriatic  acid,  a  cheap  chemical 
obtainable  at  any  druggist's,  when  poured  on  soil  having 
in  it  a  large  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime,  will  vigorously 
effervesce.  The  bubbles  given  off  are  bubbles  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  If  your  alfalfa  is  sickly  and  yellow, 
if  sorrel  comes  in  and  alfalfa  goes  out,  test  that  land 
and  the  subsoil  for  effervescence.  Ten  to  one  you  will 
find  nowhere  any  of  it.  Then  begin  seeking  a  source  of 
carbonate  of  lime  cheap  enough  so  that  you  can  afford 
to  use  it  in  large  amounts,  or  else  forsake  alfalfa  for 
alsike  clover  and  redtop. 

Fertile  Soils  for  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  also  revels  in  a  fer- 
tile soil.  I  have  found  no  plant  of  use  to  men  that 
does  not  like  a  fertile  soil,  but  alfalfa  more  than  most 
revels  in  sufficient  plant  foo.d.  It  likes  abundant  potas- 
sium, phosphorus,  some  humus  and  much  carbonate  of 
lime.  Withal,  it  is  a  famous  soil-enricher;  its  nodule- 
bearing  roots  gather  more  free  nitrogen  from  the  air 
than  those  of  almost  any  other  legume,  but  it  will  not 
enrich  very  poor  soils  as  well  as  will  vetches,  for  exam- 
ple, or  cowpeas.  It  likes  a  soil  on  which  man  has  worked, 
although  it  finds  in  nature  on  the  western  plains  soils 
that  suit  it  to  perfection.  In  the  older  eastern  states 
it  revels  in  rich,  loamy,  drained,  sweet  soils,  full  of 
humus,  full  of  beneficent  bacteria.  I  have  often  remarked 


METHODS  OF  ENRICHING  SOIL  221 

that  in  the  East  one  could  nearly  predict  whether  alfalfa 
would  thrive  in  a  field  or  no  by  simply  watching  the 
plowman  as  he  walked.  If  behind  him  blackbirds  fol- 
lowed he  might  feel  sure  that  alfalfa  would  succeed; 
if  no  blackbirds  came  he  might  well  doubt.  The  black- 
birds follow  where  there  are  earthworms.  Earthworms 
are  in  soils  drained  and  stored  with  vegetable  matter. 
Where  earthworms  are  bacteria  also  exist  in  myriads. 
If,  then,  that  soil  in  which  blackbirds  feed  has  in  it 
much  carbonate  of  lime  success  with  alfalfa  is  assured, 
if  a  few  other  easily-met  requirements  are  obeyed.  In 
short,  make  the  soil  dry,  sweeten  it  with  lime  if  you  are 
farming  on  soil  needing  lime,  make  it  rich,  then  sow 
alfalfa. 

There  are  many  ways  of  enriching  land.  In  some 
places  men  grow  crimson  clover,  fertilizing  it  well, 
which  they  turn  under  in  spring  and  allow  to  decay 
to  make  humus  to  aid  alfalfa-growing.  Dairymen  and 
stock  feeders  apply  manure  for  a  preceding  crop,  putting 
it  on  heavily;  of  this  enough  is  left  to  cause  the  alfalfa 
to  grow  off  vigorously.  Any  method  .of  good  farming 
whatever  that  will  make  the  soil  rich  if  it  is  not  already 
so,  will  serve.  I  have  found,  however,  that  it  is  better 
if  one  can  avoid  turning  under  manure  directly  for  alfal- 
fa. If  one  could  begin  by  manuring  the  land  heavily, 
then  grow  corn  or  some  crop  that  could  be  kept  clean, 
give  absolutely  clean  culture  for  a  year,  and  then  sow 
the  alfalfa,  one  would  avoid  the  curse  of  weeds.  After 
all,  no  universal  rule  of  soil  culture  will  serve.  On  an 
old  plantation  in  Louisiana,  misused  for  50  years  or 
more,  but  of  naturally  rich  alluvial  soil,  I  sowed  alfalfa. 


222  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

The  land  would  not  grow  more  than  25  bushels  of  corn 
per  .acre  and  seemed  very  poor,  hard  and  clayey.  Wish- 
ing to  make  alfalfa  succeed  I  cleaned  out  a  stable  that 
had  in  it  40  years'  manure  and  enriched  part  of  one  field 
well.  I  used  also  commercial  fertilizers,  chiefly  of  phos- 
phorus. Other  parts  of  the  land  had  no  manuring  what- 
ever. The  final  result  showed  absolutely  no  difference  in 
growth  between  the  manured  and  the  unmanured  land — 
no  sign  of  the  fertilizer  was  discernible.  The  fact  was, 
the  soil  was  very  rich  in  phosphorus  and  potassium. 
The  alfalfa  did  not  mind  its  deficiency  in  nitrogen,  since 
the  soil  carried  naturally  the  bacteria  that  alfalfa  re- 
quires and  as  soon  as  it  started  to  grow  it  gathered  its 
own  nitrogen.  I  have  nowhere  seen  such  a  result  else- 
where, and  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  make  soils  destined  to 
grow  alfalfa  as  rich  as  one  well  can.  Assuredly  here 
I  address  my  words  to  farmers  in  eastern  America; 
dwellers  in  Idaho  and  Colorado  may  smile  if  they  will, 
though  in  Nebraska  manure  gave  good  returns  applied 
as  preparation  for  alfalfa,  as,  also,  it  did  in  Iowa.  Now, 
with  rich  land,  drained,  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime, 
are  we  ready  to  sow  alfalfa?  Nearly.  Now  comes  in- 
oculation. I  know  of  no  plant  more  dependent  on  its 
bacteria  than  alfalfa.  Without  them  it  is  a  poor,  sickly, 
short-lived  plant. 

There  are  several  ways  of  inoculating  land  for  al- 
falfa, but  first  let  us  consider  where  it  is  needed.  Assur- 
edly not  in  California  nor  in  any  of  the  semi-arid  land 
of  the  West;  not,  commonly,  in  Kansas  now,  though 
once  it  was  needed;  not  often  any  more  in  Nebraska,  but 
in  all  the  region  east  of  the  Missouri  River  one  is  apt  to 


INOCULATION  FOR  ALFALFA  223 

run  against  land  destitute  of  the  alfalfa  bacteria.  It  is 
pretty  safe  to  assume  that  if  you  have  never  grown  alfalfa 
on  your  farm  you  will  be  helped  by  inoculation. 
If  sweet  clover  grows  naturally  there  you  have  the  bac- 
teria; they  inhabit  at  pleasure  either  legume.  If  you 
have  fed  hay  made  from  alfalfa  meadows  and  used  the 
manure  you  have  inoculation ;  in  fact,  wherever  you  have 
used  much  manure  of  any  sort  the  chances  are  that  you 
have  the  bacteria.  At  the  same  time,  I  have  seen  very 
small  and  sickly  alfalfa  growing  close  to  a  barn  where 
presumably  much  manure  had  been  spilled,  and  search 
showed  that  there  were  no  nodules  on  any  of  the  alfalfa 
roots.  In  part  this  may  have  been  the  result  of  acidity 
of  soil,  since  no  lime  had  been  used  there.  In  the  course 
of  many  years'  study  I  have  yet  to  find  any  soil  full  of 
carbonate  of  lime  and  highly  manured  that  especially 
needed  inoculation.  However,  the  trick  is  of  inestimable 
value  on  soils  that  need  it,  and  many  do,  as  there  is  an 
overwhelming  wealth  of  experience  to  prove. 

Alluvial  soils  commonly  do  not  need  inoculation.  For 
example,  in  Louisiana  there  was  no  need  of  inoculation 
in  the  heavy  "buckshot"  soils,  but  in  the  sandy  soils  with 
less  lime,  inoculation  was  good.  Inoculation  is  the  life 
of  alfalfa  in  eastern  Virginia,  in  Maryland  and,  in  truth, 
in  most  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  region.  It  is  less  seldom 
practiced  in  Ohio,  but  is  strongly  advised  for  New  York. 
It  is  safe  to  do  it  wherever  alfalfa  is  a  new  crop.  On 
our  own  farm  in  Ohio  we  observe  that  we  now  commonly 
get  a  crop  of  hay  the  year  it  is  sown,  whereas  in  former 
years,  while  we  got  good  stands,  we  got  no  hay  till  the 
second  year, 


224  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

How  to  Inoculate. — The  safe  way  is  by  use  of  soil 
from  either  a  successful  alfalfa  field  or  from  a  sweet 
clover  patch.  If  it  is  near  at  hand  load  up  the  earth  in 
a  manure  spreader,  and  just  before  sowing  the  seed  dis- 
tribute the  soil'  lightly  over  the  field,  following  the 
spreader  close  with  a  harrow  that  will  mix  the  inoculat- 
ing earth  with  the  soil  below  so  that  the  bacteria  will 
not  be  hurt  by  the  sunlight,  which  is  commonly  fatal  to 
them.  If  one  must  purchase  soil  one  can  make  it  fine 
and  mix  100  pounds  with  20  pounds  of  seed  and  sow  the 
two  together,  covering  instantly.  If  the  seed  and  soil 
are  very  well  mixed  together  they  may  be  sown  with  a 
drill.  There  are  now  made  drills  that  sow  alfalfa  seed 
very  well,  putting  it  in  at  slight  depth  and  affordiing 
nearly  perfect  opportunity  for  growth.  One  can  dry 
inoculating  material  in  the  shade,  make  it  fine  by  pass- 
ing it  through  a  sieve,  wet  the  seed  well  and  as  soon  as 
it  has  drained  but  not  dried  mix  with  it  enough  of  the 
dry  earth  to  make  it  sowable  or  drillable.  This  method 
requires  very  little  earth  and  gives  good  inoculation, 

Spring  or  Summer  Seeding. — In  Oklahoma  spring  seed- 
ing is  commonly  practiced  because  then  farmers  can  have 
enough  moisture  to  start  the  plants,  while  their  falls  are 
commonly  dry  as  well  as  their  midsummers.  In  Kansas 
the  same  conditions  prevail  more  or  less,  though  some 
midsummer  and  fall  seeding  is  done  there.  In  Iowa 
sowing  after  oats  or  early  potatoes  or  on  land  that 
has  been  kept  fallow  during  the  early  season  gives  good 
results,  while,  because  of  the  weed-infested  nature  of  the 
soil,  spring  seeding  is  not  always  successful.  In  Illinois 
much  midsummer  seeding  is  done,  and  some  spring  seed- 


SPRING  SEEDING  OF  ALFALFA  225 

ing.  In  northern  Ohio,  where  is  located  our  experiment 
station,  midsummer  seeding  seems  best,  while  in  central 
Ohio,  where  is  Woodland  Farm,  spring  seeding  has  al- 
ways been  most  successful.  It  seems  to  be  largely  a 
matter  of  previous  treatment  of  the  soil;  where  land 
has  been  permitted  to  become  very  much  infested  with 
weeds  it  is  hardly  safe  to  sow  alfalfa  in  spring  until 
a  course  of  cleansing  has  been  given;  where  the  land 
is  fairly  clean  spring  seeding  is  best.  It  also  follows 
lime  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  For  example,  in  the 
lime  lands  of  Alabama  men  can  often  sow  alfalfa  in 
spring,  midsummer  or  fall,  while  in  most  of  the  South 
only  fall-seeding  is  safe,  because  of  weeds  and  crab- 
grass.  There  is  a  steady  increase  in  the  call  for  seed 
during  June,  July  and  August  so  that  now  rather  more 
than  half  what  some  seedsmen  sell  goes  at  this  season, 
whereas  once  nearly  all  was  sold  in  February,  March  and 
April. 

Clean  Land  Essential  to  Spring  Seeding. — I  am  sure 
that  few  farms  could  have  shown  more  weeds  in  corn- 
fields than  once  we  grew  on  Woodland  Farm.  After 
we  began  growing  alfalfa,  however,  and  became  de- 
sirous of  having  a  clean  seedbed  for  it,  we  learned  to 
cultivate  better  and  to  clean  out  the  cornfields  with  hoes 
after  the  corn  was  "laid  by."  The  cost  of  this  we  found 
was  not  great,  and  we  warred  especially  on  redroot, 
lambsquarter  and  pigeongrass,  or  foxtail.  All  these  are 
bad  weeds  in  young  alfalfa;  the  foxtail  nearly  kills 
it  and  is  bad  in  old  meadows  as  well.  We  had  no  hope 
that  our  efforts  would  result  in  more  than  lessening  the 
weeds,  but  already  we  have  found  a  marvelous  change 


226  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

in  our  fields.  In  this  year's  seeding  (1910)  there  are 
many  rods  of  alfalfa  with  not  one  weed  nor  one  spear 
of  foxtail  grass,  but  only  clean,  healthy  alfalfa,  whereas 
"in  our  neighborhood  alfalfa  is  so  overgrown  with  weeds 
that  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  will  survive  at  all.  We 
have  learned  one  encouraging  lesson ;  foxtail  may  readily 
be  exterminated.  It  requires  but  one  year's  perfectly 
clean  cultivation  to  accomplish  this,  as  the  seed  will  not 
lie  dormant  in  the  earth  as  will  seeds  of  some  other  weeds. 
It  pays,  then,  to  keep'  the  land  clean  where  alfalfa  is  to 
be  sown  the  following  year. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — In  parts  of  the  Old  World  men 
plow  much  more  deeply  than  we  do  in  America.  In 
France  it  is  common  to  plow  20"  deep  for  alfalfa.  It 
has  been  our  experience  that,  commonly,  the  deeper  land 
is  plowed  for  alfalfa  the  better  the  health  and  vigor  of 
the  plants,  and  the  less  danger  from  weeds.  Soils  vary, 
subsoils  sometimes  containing  much  more  carbonate  of 
lime  than  do  surface  soils  above  them.  Where  this  con- 
dition obtains  it  pays  to  plow  as  deeply  as  one  can.  I 
have  seen  clean,  vigorous,  thrifty  alfalfa  on  deep-plowed 
land  and  just  alongside  it  poor,  thriftless,  weed-infested 
plants  where  it  had  been  plowed  shallow.  Oh  the  other 
hand,  there  are  doubtless  soils  where  deep  plowing  would 
do  no  especial  good.  The  new  type  of  disk  plow  or 
"tilling  machine"  that  uses  two  disks,  both  in  one  fur- 
row, one  under  the  other,  promises  to  be  a  great  aid  to 
alfalfa-growing.  Deep-plowed  land  will  hold  much 
more  moisture  than  shallow-plowed,  which  is  a  decided 
advantage  nearly  everywhere,  as  there  is  seldom  or  never 
enough  moisture  in  the  soil  throughout  the  season.  As 


THE  SOWING  OF  ALFALFA  227 

a  rule,  then,  plow  for  alfalfa  as  deep  as  you  can,  no 
matter  how  much  raw,  fresh  earth  you  turn  up.  It  is 
wise  to  leave  strips  for  testing  the  result  with  ordinary 
plowing. 

Seedbed  for  Alfalfa. — The  plowing  should  be  done 
some  time  before  seeding  time  where  this  is  convenient. 
It  is  necessary  for  it  to  be  in  some  manner  settled  to- 
gether. When  seeding  must  follow  plowing  at  short 
intervals,  one  can  use  the  disk  and  other  harrows  freely 
to  bring  the  earth  firmly  together  again.  A  fine,  firm 
seedbed  is  needed,  made  smooth  enough  so  that  one  can 
seed  to  a  uniform  depth.  If  the  alfalfa  is  to  be  irrigated 
the  land  must  be  carefully  leveled  also,  so  that  the  water 
may  be  led  over  it  at  no  place  too  deep,  yet  all  be  covered. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow. — Alfalfa  seed  of  good  qual- 
ity commonly  germinates  well.  When  sown  broadcast 
and  covered  with  the  drill  or  harrow  if  the  seedbed  is 
good  15  pounds  of  seed  will  give  a  thick  stand.  When 
the  seed  is  drilled  with  special  alfalfa  drills  so  that  each 
seed  has  proper  depth  of  planting,  5  pounds  or  less  gives 
a  thick  stand.  Ordinarily  as  sown  on  rough  ground 
and  given  unequal  covering  it  is  advisable  to  sow  20 
pounds  to  the  acre.  The  Ohio  station  secured  the  same 
yields  from  5  and  25  pounds.  The  practice  with  us  is 
to  sow  from  15  to  20  pounds.  It  does  no  harm  to  have 
a  stand  slightly  too  thick.  Nature  thins  it  soon  enough. 
To  sow  30  pounds  to  the  acre  seems  sheer  waste. 

Nurse-Crop  for  Alfalfa. — With  spring  seeding  east  of 
the  Missouri  River  a  nurse-crop  seems  desirable.  One 
gains  the  hay  made  from  the  nurse-crop  and  ordinarily 
does  no  injury  to  the  stand.  The  nurse-crop  in  a  measure 


228  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

prevents  growth  of  annual  grasses  and  weeds.  Beard- 
less spring  barley  is  by  far  the  best  nurse-crop,  since  it 
is  not  apt  to  lodge  and  draws  less  moisture  from  the  soil 
than  would  oats.  One  bushel  of  barley  to  the  acre 
is  enough.  Commonly  it  should  be  cut  for  hay,  though 
if  it  stands  well  it  may  be  allowed  to  ripen  its  seed.  If 
oats  are  sown  as  a  nurse-crop  3  pecks  of  good  seed  will 
be  enough  for  an  acre,  and  the  crop  must  be  mown  for 
hay  as  early  as  bloom  appears,  else  the  stand  of  alfalfa 
will  be  greatly  weakened  or  entirely  destroyed.  Long  ago 
a  farmer  in  New  Jersey  told  of  using  winter  rye  as  a 
nurse-crop,  sowing  it  in  the  spring.  We  tried  this  with 
excellent  results.  The  thrift  of  the  alfalfa  was  better 
in  the  part  of  the  field  sown  to  rye  than  in  any  other 
part,  and  the  stand  was  perfect.  Winter  rye  so\vn  in 
spring  should  not  be  allowed  to  form  heads ;  it  dies  down 
when  hot  weather  comes,  and  thus  does  its  work  without 
injury  to  the  alfalfa. 

Method  of  Sowing  Alfalfa  in  Spring. — Our  practice 
for  many  years  has  been  to  make  the  land  ready  by  sev- 
eral diskings  and  harrowings,  having  it  smooth  by  using 
last  a  plank  drag.  A  common  grain  drill  with  a  grass 
seeding  attachment  sows  the  barley,  one  bushel  to  the 
acre,  and  the  alfalfa  is  sown  ahead  of  the  drill  so  that 
it  is  covered  by  the  disks.  Some  of  it  is  covered  too 
deeply,  but  enough  gets  through  to  give  a  good  stand. 
A  plank  drag  is  floated  over  the  field  to  make  a  finishing 
touch,  so  that  the  mowers  may  run  nicely  there  later  in 
the  season.  Having  all  our  land  inoculated  now,  we 
give  that  matter  no  thought;  were  we  to  start  in  a 
new  place  we  should  first  distribute  the  inoculating  earth. 


FERTILIZING  AND  DRILLING   ALFALFA  229 

Fertilizer  for  Alfalfa. — The  sooner  alfalfa  gets  a  vig- 
orous start  the  better;  therefore  it  is  wise  to  fertilize  it 
well  as  it  is  sown.  We  commonly  use  bonemeal  or  acid 
phosphate  at  the  rate  of  300  pounds  per  acre,  though 
we  have  used  "floats"  or  fine-ground  raw  phosphatic 
rock  with  good  results,  using  of  course  more  to  the  acre. 
In  Virginia  I  have,  by  the  way,  seen  better  results  come 
from  900  pounds  of  floats  to  the  acre  than  grew  on  an 
adjoining  plot  where  was  applied  400  pounds  of  bone- 
meal.  Sometimes  we  add  a  little  potassium  to  the  ferti- 
lizer, this  on  special  soils  needing  that  element.  We 
do  not  use  nitrogen  on  soils  that  are  inoculated  and 
think  it  more  often  harmful  than  helpful  since  it  en- 
courages weed  growth. 

Alfalfa  Seed  Drill. — A  drill  is  on  the  market  that 
will  sow  alfalfa  seed  at  the  proper  depth,  and  several 
manufacturers  are  now  v/orking  at  the  problem  of  mak- 
ing drills  that  will  accurately  place  alfalfa  seed  as  to 
depth  and  amount.  Such  drills  should  save  much  seed 
and  give  uniform  stands.  They  can  not  work  well  unless 
the  land  is  made  very  fine,  smooth  and  level.  In  using 
such  drills  where  a  nurse-crop  is  desired,  one  can  double- 
drill;  that  is,  follow  the  grain  drill  with  the  alfalfa  drill. 
In  seeding  later  in  the  season  where  no  nurse-crop  is 
permissible  the  alfalfa  drill  finds  its  almost  undisputed 
field. 

Summer  Care  of  Spring-Sown  Alfalfa. — When  the  lit- 
tle alfalfa  plants  are  six  weeks  old  and  5"  high  they  will 
be  found  to  be  inoculated  and  to  have  nodules  attached 
to  their  roots.  Your  sole  care  will  be  to  keep  off  of  the 
field  and  keep  all  animals  off.  Should  coarse  weeds  ap- 


230  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

pear  they  may  be  pulled  by  hand.  Carefully  avoid  clip- 
ping or  cutting  the  alfalfa  until  it  has  sent  out  from  the 
base  of  the  stems,  at  the  crown,  small  shoots  or  suckers 
that  are  about  to  make  new  stems.  When  these  shoots 
come  the  alfalfa  needs  cutting  without  much  regard  to 
how  large  it  is  or  whether  it  happens  to  be  in  bloom  or 
no.  If  it  is  mown  off  the  first  season  before  these  shoots 
appear  it  may  be  destroyed.  In  truth  the  rule  holds  good 
during  the  life  of  the  plant  that  it  should  not  be  mown 
off  before  the  shoots  appear;  after  the  first  year  it  will 
not  die  if  mown  too  soon  but  it  will  be  markedly  weak- 
ened. Let  it  alone,  then,  till  it  is  ready  to  cut;  then 
cut  it  off  with  its  accompanying  nurse-crop  and  make 
into  hay.  Ordinarily  there  will  follow  another  growth 
that  will  be  made  into  hay  in  about  40  days. 

Fall  Care  of  New-Sown  Alfalfa. — I  admit  that  I  am 
writing  this  chiefly  for  the  help  of  men  living  out  of 
the  recognized  alfalfa-growing  districts.  In  Utah  it  did 
not  much  matter  what  one  did  to  alfalfa;  it  came  serenely 
forward  the  next  year  just  the  same,  and  this  is  true  of 
Idaho,  Colorado  and  other  western  states.  In  all  the 
eastern  country,  however,  it  pays  well  to  send  alfalfa 
into  winter  with  a  growth  standing  of  at  least  12".  There- 
fore we  avoid  late  cutting  and  never  in  the  East  pasture 
in  the  fall,  unless  we  desire  to  destroy  the  alfalfa  and 
plow  it  up.  Bear  this  well  in  mind :  Land  well  inocu- 
lated can  safely  be  seeded  in  the  spring,  as  the  vigorous 
alfalfa  gets  ahead  of  the  weeds. 

Summer  and  Fall-Seeding  of  Alfalfa. — Commonly 
men  sow  alfalfa  seed  in  late  summer  or  early  fall.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  their  soils  are  thoroughly  well 


SUMMER  SOWING  OF  ALFALFA  231 

seeded  with  weeds  and  foxtail  grass,  so  that  they  do 
not  dare  sow  in  the  spring.  There  are  certain  rather 
rigid  requirements  that  must  be  met  if  one  is  to  sow  in 
the  summer  or  fall.  First,  manage  to  get  a  good  seed- 
bed, fine,  firm,  moist  and  deep.  He  may  slight  his  seed- 
bed somewhat  in  early  April,  but  he  must  make  it  very 
perfect  indeed  if  he  sows  in  July,  August  or  Septem- 
ber, as  the  hot  suns  of  the  summer  soon  take  out  the 
moisture  and  leave  the  seeds  to.  perish.  The  ways  most 
commonly  adopted  for  midsummer  seeding  are  to  plow 
in  the  spring  and  afterward  give  weekly  harrowings  to 
retain  moisture  till  mid-July,  by  which  means  also  one 
will  destroy  most  of  the  weed  seeds  that  lie  near  the 
surface ;  or,  sow  the  land  to  barley,  oats  or  wheat,  cut 
off  the  crop  either  for  grain  or  for  hay  and  at  once  plow 
the  land  and  prepare  the  seedbed  for  alfalfa;  or,  plant 
early  potatoes,  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  enrich 
the  land  well  where  they  are  and  dig  as  soon  as  possible, 
then  immediately  prepare  the  land  and  sow  to  alfalfa. 
The  latter  plan  works  well  wrhere  one  wishes  to  grow 
potatoes.  The  heavy  fertilization  needed  for  the  crop, 
and  the  frequent  cultivation  during  the  season  of  its 
growth,  together  with  the  cultivation  given  by  digging, 
leave  the  land  in  good  order  for  alfalfa.  When  one  plows 
a  stubble  to  sow  to  alfalfa  one  should  take  all  possible 
care  to  avoid  loss  of  moisture.  The  best  method  is  to 
harrow  and  make  fine  each  morning  and  afternoon  what 
is  plowed  during  the  half  day.  One  may  plow  till  10 
o'clock,  then  harrow  on  the  strip  till  noon,  plow  again 
till  4  o'clock  and  harrow  till  6.  The  use  of  the  roller 
will  also  aid  in  conserving  moisture  at  this  time. 


232  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

One  can  not  safely  sow  alfalfa  seed  in  the  dust.  There 
is  danger  that  there  may  come  a  shower  sufficient  to 
make  the  seed  germinate,  but  not  sufficient  to  wet  the 
underlying  dust.  The  result  would  be  that  the  little 
seedling  would  perish  before  its  rootlets  could  reach  soil 
moisture  below.  One  must  wait  till  the  earth  is  moist 
clear  down  before  sowing  the  seed,  or  take  chances. 
After  a  good  rain,  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  fit  to  work,  har- 
row to  loosen  the  surface  and  then  drill  in  the  seed. 
No  nurse-crop  is  needed  or  permissible  in  fall  or  mid- 
summer seeding  of  alfalfa.  North  of  Tennessee  one 
should  sow  as  early  as  possible  after  the  middle  of  July. 
Alfalfa  is  in  no  sense  a  plant  like  wheat  or  rye  or  tim- 
othy grass,  liking  to  be  sown  in  the  fall.  It  must  get 
a  strong  root  before  cold  weather  or  it  will  likely  perish. 

Making  a  Seedbed  in  the  South. — In  Louisiana  I  had 
direction  of  a  demonstration  farm  on  an  old  abandoned 
cotton  plantation.  The  soil  was  the  so-called  "buckshot." 
that  is,  a  dense  clay  made  by  a  deposit  of  still  flowing 
water  of  the  Mississippi  River,  rich  in  lime,  rich  in  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  but  very  deficient  in  vegetable  mat- 
ter and  nitrogen.  The  land  was  level  and  wet,  being 
flooded  by  each  heavy  rainstorm.  Previous  attempts  at 
alfalfa-growing  had  commonly  resulted  in  failure,  though 
the  manager  had  established  one  thrifty  field  on  slightly 
sloping  ground.  The  first  successful  step  in  getting  al- 
falfa there  was  to  plow  the  land  10"  deep  in  July,  throw- 
ing it  into  ridges  2  rods  wide  and  as  high  in  the  centers 
as  we  could  raise  it.  The  middle  furrows  were  cleaned 
out  with  a  road  grader  so  as  to  give  perfect  drainage. 
When  we  had  the  land  ridged,  the  rounded  ridges  re- 


CLIPPING  ALFALFA   SEEDINGS  233 

sembled  well-graded  roads;  the  summit  of  each  ridge 
was  about  2'  above  the  furrow.  The  land  being  im- 
mensely hard,  broke  up  in  great  lumps  and  clods.  These 
we  made  no  effort  to  subdue,  as  they  were  quite  hopeless. 
When  rain  came  at  last  the  clods  melted,  then  the  disk 
and  other  harrows  were  used  and  the  land  made  into  a 
fine  seedbed.  In  September,  weather  and  soil  conditions 
were  right,  and  the  seed  was  sown.  It  came  up  well  and 
made  a  good  growth  before  cold  weather.  The  follow- 
ing year  each  of  the  fields  made  fine  harvests  of  hay, 
probably  the  best  that  had  ever  been  grown  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi bottoms  in  Louisiana.  These  buckshot  soils  need- 
ing no  inoculation,  none  was  given.  I  mention  this  in- 
stance to  point  a  lesson.  The  preparation  for  alfalfa 
went  on  up  to  seeding  time.  All  the  land  that  was 
plowed  early  made  good  alfalfa,  the  first  plowed  lands 
the  best.  From  this  degree  of  value  there  was  steady 
deterioration,  till  at  last  there  was  complete  failure.  The 
early-prepared  land  is  the  winner  with  alfalfa  sowing, 
since  one  can  not  in  late  plowings  often  get  a  fine,  moist, 
firm  seedbed. 

•Do  Not  Clip  Seedings  of  Alfalfa. — Nothing  is  to  be 
done  with  late-seeded  alfalfa  except  to  leave  it  alone.  If 
one  can  stimulate  it  by  fertilization  at  the  time  of  seed- 
ing to  make  rapid  growth  well  and  good;  one  can  help 
it  no  more  after  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  ground.  Neither 
clip,  pasture  nor  even  let  an  animal  set  foot-  on  it  again 
till  warm  weather  in  spring.  The  one  thing  that  one 
may  do  in  the  North  is  to  go  over  it  with  the  manure 
spreader  after  the  land  freezes  and  sprinkle  it  with  ma- 
nure— enough  to  prevent  the  frequent  freezing  and  thaw- 


234  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

ing  of  the  land,  but  not  enough  to  smother  the  little  al- 
falfa. Light,  chaffy,  strawy  manure  is  better  here  than 
heavy  material. 

Treatment  and  Use  of  Alfalfa  Meadows-. — If  one's 
land  is  deficient  in  phosphorus  (and  whose  is  not  east, 
of  the  Missouri  River?)  one  should  in  the  spring  go  over 
the  alfalfa  meadow  with  a  fertilizer  distributor  and  leave 
there  a  good  dressing  of  some  phosphatic  fertilizer. 
Various  substances  are  available;  basic  slag,  which  has 
in  it  much  lime  and  available  phosphorus,  is  a  good  thing 
to  use  near  the  seaboard  where  it  is  cheap.  Freights  to 
the  Middle  West  make  it  impracticable  to  use  it  there. 
Acid  phosphate  is  everywhere  available  and  is  so  soluble 
that  it  is  perhaps  the  best  substance  for  mere  top-dress- 
ing. Bonemeal  is  always  good  and  can  be  got  into 
the  soil  by  disking  or  by  use  of  the  spring-tooth  har- 
row. One  can  apply  raw  phosphatic  rock  or  floats, 
though  it  is  not  available  unless  mixed  through  the  soil, 
and  will  need  to  be  well  dug  in  with  spring-tooth  or 
disk  harrow.  We  seem  to  keep  up  the  production  of 
our  alfalfa  meadows  by  using  300  pounds  to  the  acre 
of  acid  phosphate  of  as  high  analysis  as  we  can  buy. 
Next  let  the  alfalfa  alone.  It  injures  it  to  walk  through 
it  or  drive  through  it.  Rust  is  its  bane  in  the  East; 
wherever  it  is  disturbed  this  rust  starts  and  from  that 
point  it  spreads.  I  have  seen  alfalfa  destroyed  in  a  strip 
20'  wide  along  a  footpath  made  by  fishermen  near  a 
creek;  it  is  injured  where  teams  turn  in  cultivating 
corn.  Let  it  be  till  it  is  ready  to  be  mown. 

Time  to  Mow  Alfalfa. — When  you   suspect,   finally, 
that  the  alfalfa  is  ready  to  be  made  into  hay,  go  to  the 


MAKING  ALFALFA  HAY  235 

field  and,  getting  on  your  knees,  make  close  examination 
to  see  the  condition  of  the  small  shoots  near  the  ground. 
If  these  have  not  yet  started  at  all,  delay  a  little  until 
they  do  start,  no  matter  if  it  is  in  bloom.  When  the 
shoots  are  an  inch  or  two  long,  cut  and  make  into  hay, 
no  matter  how  much  or  how  little  bloom  there  may  be. 
The  stage  of  bloom  is  no  certain  index  of  proper  time 
to  cut  alfalfa  in  the  East,  if  it  is  anywhere.  The  shoots 
at  the  base  of  the  stems  are  unfailing  as  telling  the  in- 
ternal condition  of  the  plant,  its  vigor  and  readiness  to 
send  out  new  and  vigorous  growth.  If  one  lets  it  stand 
long  after  these  shoots  appear,  one  -will  be  in  danger  of 
cutting  them  off,  and  the  leaves  will  have  fallen  from 
the  stems,  leaving  very  hard,  woody  hay.  I.  D.  O'Don- 
nell  of  the  Yellowstone  Valley  cuts  down  400  acres  at 
one  dash  when  the  right  time  arrives,  so  as  to  keep  his 
alfalfa  always  in  full  vigor. 

Making  Alfalfa  Hay. — The  making  of  alfalfa  hay  is 
an  art  seldom  learned.  Most  men  are  content  to  allow 
the  sun  to  dry  the  stuff  till  it  is  crisp  and  brittle,  then 
rake  it,  leaving  the  earth  green  with  leaves,  the  best  part 
of  the  hay  lost.  Alfalfa  leaves  have  been  proved  by  the 
Nebraska  station  to  be  worth  pound  for  pound  a  little 
more  than  wheat  middlings,  so  it  is  clear  that  one  can 
not  afford  to  leave  them  scattered  over  the  field.  The 
right  method  is  to  rake  the  hay  while  it  is  yet  tough 
enough  to  hold  its  leaves,  making  the  windrows  small 
so  that  it  may  go  on  drying  somewhat  in  that  condi- 
tion. Afterward  it  may  be  laid  up  in  small  cocks,  laid 
high  enough  to  put  enough  hay  together  so  that  a  rain 
will  not  penetrate  through,  and  narrow  enough  to  le,t 


236  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  air  do  a  good  deal  of  drying.  In  these  cocks  the 
hay  will  often  finish  its  drying  perfectly.  Often  it  is 
wise  to  open  them  during  the  heat  of  the  next  day  after 
cocking,  and  let  them  lie  in  about  six  flakes  exposed  for 
a  time  to  sun  and  air.  If  very  damp  it  may  be  turned 
once  and  then  hurried  into  the  barn  or  rick.  It  must  not 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cock  too  long,  else  the 
•alfalfa  below  will  turn  white.  This  method  is  cheaper 
than  it  sounds;  men  trained  to  the  work  will  cock  hay 
astonishingly  fast  and  once  in  the  cock  it  defies  most 
weathers,  especially  if  cocked  green,  as  advised,  because 
then  the  stems  droop  so  as  to  turn  off  water  from  the 
clouds. 

Use  of  Hayloaders. — Because  labor  is  so  hard  to  get, 
men  find  the  hayloader  a  profitable  help.  It  is  not  so 
safe  to  use  with  alfalfa  as  with  other  hays,  but  if  used 
intelligently  little  loss  may  follow.  One  should  have  a 
side-delivery  rake,  turning  the  hay  over  lightly  and  loose- 
ly, into  long,  smallish  windrows;  then  after  they  have 
sunned  somewhat  more,  follow  with  the  hayloader  and 
with  no  great  loss  put  the  hay  on  the  wagon. 

How  Dry  Must  Alfalfa  Hay  Be?— If  one  is  placing 
only  two  or  three  tons  in  a  mow  one  must  have  the  hay 
dry,  else  there  will  be  often  a  disagreeable  dusty  mould 
appear.  If  one  is  placing  50  tons,  more  or  less,  together, 
one  can  have  it  more  moist,  since  the  heat  evolved  in 
curing  will  destroy  the  mould  germs.  Our  test  is  to  take 
a  wisp  of  the  dampest  of  the  hay  and  twist  it  as  hard 
as  we  can.  If  moisture  exudes,  the  hay  will  likely  spoil 
in  the  mow;  so  we  dry  it  further  before  storing.  If  no 
moisture  can  be  seen,  even  though  it  feels  tough,  we 


VALUE  OF  ALFALFA  HAY  237 

hasten  it  to  the  mow.  In  general,  we  try  to  get  the  hay 
as  dry  as  we  can  before  housing.  We  seldom  make  in 
Ohio  any  alfalfa  hay  of  the  bright  green  color  so  com- 
monly seen  in  the  West;  but  we  find  that  animals  relish 
the  brown  hay  as  well  as  the  green,  and  perhaps  relish 
it  more. 

Value  of  Alfalfa  Hay. — Thejre  are   three  principal 
hay  plants  in  the  United   States;   timothy,   red  clover 
and  alfalfa.     At  present  there  is  probably  a  good  deal 
more  alfalfa  grown  than  red  clover,  since  in  1899  the 
production  of  each  was  about  the  same,  though  of  red 
clover  the  acreage  reported  by  the  I2th  census  was  about 
double  for  clover  what  it  was  for  alfalfa.    The  produc- 
tion stood:    alfalfa,  2.5  tons  per  acre;  red  clover,   1.3 
tons;    cultivated   grasses    (mainly    timothy),    i.i    tons. 
Since  then  alfalfa  has  made  great  advance.    It  has  passed 
the  experimental  stage;  there  are  now  no  serious  prob- 
lems of  alfalfa-growing  to  be  solved,  and  men  are  sow- 
ing it  more  largely  than  ever  before,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  demand  for  the  hay  increases  faster  than  the 
production.    For  all  classes  of  animals  it  is  the  best  for- 
age that  can  be  grown  in  America,  and  at  the  same  time 
it  is  the  most  efficient  soil-enricher.     Spillman  reports 
that  in  Nebraska  alfalfa  has  increased  the  yield  of  corn 
grown  on  sod  75  per  cent.     In  Ohio  we  have  repeatedly 
grown  100  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  and  more  on  alfalfa 
sod.    The  same  land  would  have  produced  about  60  bush- 
els before  it  had  been  sown  to  alfalfa.     In  Idaho  wheat 
has  increased  in  yield  from  25  to  75  bushels  per  acre 
after  alfalfa.     In  California  orange  groves  25  years  old 
show  markedly  where  alfalfa  once  stood,  the  portion  of 


238  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  orchard  on  alfalfa  sod  producing  one-third  more, 
and  the  trees  being  larger  and  thriftier,  and  this  despite 
the  fact  that  the  trees  not  on  alfalfa  land  were  given  the 
more  fertilizer.  In  Colorado  on  alfalfa  sod  more  than 
i ,000  bushels  of  potatoes  have  been  grown,  and  113 
bushels  of  wheat  on  one  acre.  In  Ohio  it  is  not  well  to 
sow  oats  after  alfalfa,  since  they  will  lodge,  but  corn 
reveling  in  fertility  finds  none  too  much  where  the  alfalfa 
grew.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  conceivable  that  continual 
growing  of  alfalfa  and  taking  off  of  all  the  hay,  return- 
ing neither  phosphorus  nor  potassium  to  the  land,  might 
result,  after  a  time,  in  a  most  serious  diminution  of 
mineral-element  fertility;  therefore  it  is  wise  in  all  the 
eastern  states  steadily  to  add  to  the  phosphorus  supply 
of  alfalfa  soils  and  to  attend  to  the  need  of  potassium 
if  any  need  there  be.  Rightly  managed,  an  alfalfa  field 
is  a  mine  of  fertility  by  which  little  by  little  a  farm  may 
be  redeemed  and  made  rich.  If  the  hay  is  fed  or  pas- 
tured, if  the  manure  is  returned  and  phosphorus  is  bought 
as  needed,  there  should  be  small  difficulty  in  doubling  the 
productiveness  of  the  average  farm. 

Feeding  Value  of  Alfalfa  Hay. — Alfalfa  hay,  cut  at 
the  right  time,  has  about  the  same  nutritive  value  as  oats. 
It  is  rich  enough  so  that  it  can  be  made  into  bread  and 
fed  to  men ;  in  truth,  this  has  been  done.  It  is  a  feed 
especially  rich  in  protein,  that  material  that  makes  the 
red  flesh  and  blood,  milk  and  brain  and  nerve  tissue 
in  the  body.  It  has  too  much  protein,  in  fact,  for  its 
fats  and  carbohydrates.  Thus  alfalfa  hay  alone  is  an 
unbalanced  ration.  I  have  been  amused  to  see*  horses 
and  mules  running  in  yards  with  stacks  of  alfalfa  hay 


ALFALFA   AND    HORSES  239 

and  stacks  of  bright  straw  going  from  one  stack  to 
the  other  and  eating  alternately,  balancing  their  own  ra- 
tions in  that  way.  It  is  clear  that  the  great  value  of 
alfalfa  hay  is  as  a  feed  for  milking  animals,  for  young 
and  growing  animals,  and  as  a  part  of  the  ration  for  work- 
ing horses.  The  natural  complement  of  alfalfa  is  corn, 
since  that  is  rich  in  fat  and  starch  and  poor  in  protein. 
Working  horses  fed  alfalfa  hay  in  moderation  maintain 
splendid  flesh  and  work  well  and  are  enduring.  Corn 
fed  with  alfalfa  hay  better  balances  the  ration  than  oats. 
Horses  should  never  be  overfed  with  alfalfa,  since  they 
will  eat  it  as  long  as  they  can  reach  it.  Idle  horses  may 
become  "soft"  or  of  poor  endurance  when  overfed  on 
alfalfa  hay,  because  it  taxes  the  eliminative  organs. 
Working  horses  accustomed  to  it  endure  fatigue  well 
and  have  good  wind. 

In  the  dairy  alfalfa  very  nearly  takes  the  place  of  wheat 
bran.  Some  experiments  place  alfalfa  meal  as  high  as 
wheat  bran  for  milk  production;  other  experiments  indi- 
cate that  it  is  not  quite  so  good.  The  Tennessee  station 
found  that  with  ordinary  alfalfa  hay  1^/2  pounds  of  hay 
equaled  a  pound  of  bran.  It  is  very  noticeable  that  cows 
fed  alfalfa  hay  have  a  better  look  and  weigh  more  than 
cows  fed  other  hay  with  more  grain.  Its  use  seems  to 
keep  them  in  especially  good  health. 

Alfalfa  for  Sheep. — Alfalfa  is  the  natural  feed  of 
sheep.  Millions  of  sheep  are  wintered  on  alfalfa  haf 
in  the  United  States,  and  many  thousands  of  lambs  are 
fattened  on  it.  It  is  not  profitable  to  fatten  any  stock 
OM  alfalfa  alone  if  grain  can  be  procured,  since  alfalfa 
is  too  bulky  and  one-sided  in  its  composition  to  form  a 


240  MEADOWS    AND   PASTURES 

perfect  ration.  Barley  or  corn  fed  with  alfalfa  make 
perfect  lambs.  For  a  maintenance  ration  the  alfalfa  alone 
will  serve  well,  though  even  here  bright  straw,  corn- 
stalks or  wild  hay  may  be  fed  in  connection  with  good 
results. 

Alfalfa  for  Swine. — Hogs  will  eat  a  good  deal  of 
alfalfa  hay  during  winter  to  their  great  good  and  health. 
If  meant  for  hogs  alfalfa  hay  should  be  early  cut  and 
nicely  cured.  It  may  be  chopped  fine  and  cornmeal  mixed 
with  it ;  it  may  be  fed  as  one  would  feed  it  to  cattle,  or  it 
may  be  ground  into  meal.  The  relative  profit  of  either 
practice  depends  on  the  cost  of  alfalfa  hay.  Ordinarily 
it  is  cheaper  to  waste  a  portion  of  the  hay  (which  works 
into  the  manure)  than  to  go  to  the  expense  of  grinding. 
For  brood  sows  in  winter  alfalfa  hay  is  almost  indispen- 
sable. Always, 'when  feeding  swine  on  alfalfa,  a  partial 
ration  of  grain  should  be  fed. 

Use  of  Alfalfa  Pasture. — Alfalfa  sown  for  pasture 
should  always  be  mixed  with  grasses,  unless  it  is  to  be 
merely  grazed  by  horses  and  swine.  The  grasses  usable 
for  this  purpose  are  timothy,  orchard  grass  and  brome 
grass.  Brome  grass  seems  best  for  the  purpose,  but  in 
time  it  will  encroach  on  alfalfa  and  may  weaken  it.  It 
yields  the  most  and  best  pasturage,  however.  There  is 
little  danger  of  animals  bloating  on  alfalfa  pasture  well 
mixed  with  grasses.  Bloating  is  the  one  thing  most  to  be 
feared  in  cows  and  sheep;  horses  and  pigs  seldom  give 
any  trouble  of  this  kind.  There  are  certain  rules  that, 
when  observed,  will  commonly  prevent  bloating.  Ani- 
mals should  not  be  turned  on  alfalfa  until  it  has  reached 
a  good  height  and  come  nearly  to  bloom ;  it  should  be  at 


STOCK  BLOATING  ON  ALFALFA  241 

least  a  foot  or  more  high.  The  animals  should  be  filled 
as  full  as  possible  with  green  grass  or  some  feed  that  they 
like.  They  should  be  turned  in  at  about  10  o'clock  in  the 
morning  and  afterward  left  always  on  the  field,  not  being 
taken  off  at  night  or  during  rains.  It  is  when  animals 
have  been  away  from  the  field  and  become  hungry  that 
they  eat  too  rapidly  on  return  and  are  troubled  by  bloat- 
ing. For  the  good  of  the  pasture  it  should  be  so  wide 
that  it  would  never  be  eaten  close,  but  once  or  twice  a 
year  the  mower  should  go  over  the  parts  not  eaten  and 
the  cut  forage  made  into  hay.  Thus  treated,  alfalfa  is 
little  injured  by  being  pastured.  Always,  in  frosty  coun- 
tries, all  animals  should  be  taken  from  the  field  before 
time  of  very  hard  frosts,  and  no  foot  should  afterward 
tread  upon  it  until  growing  weather  of  the  following  year. 
Not  only  is  it  bad  for  alfalfa  to  be  trodden  upon  in  cold 
weather  (except  in  the  arid  West),  but  it  is  injurious  to 
animals  to  eat  frosted  alfalfa.  Furthermore,  alfalfa  is 
better  to  have  left  on  it  a  growth  of  at  least  a  foot  in 
height. 

Alfalfa  as  a  Soiling  Crop. — Should  one  wish  to  get  the 
utmost  from  one's  soil,  and  be  willing  to  perform  the 
needed  labor,  one  should  sow  alfalfa  and  feed  animals  by 
soiling.  An  acre  of  moderately  good  alfalfa  will  yield 
during  the  season  from  20,000  to  30,000  pounds  of  green 
forage.  A.  cow  will  consume,  it  is  estimated,  about  30 
pounds  a  day  of  alfalfa  with  access  to  some  other  feeds, 
grasses  and  perhaps  a  morsel  of  dry  corn.  Thus  a  cow 
would  in  a  month  consume  about  900  to  1,000  pounds  of 
alfalfa  forage,  the  acre  keeping  25  to  30  cows  for  a 
month.  In  cutting  alfalfa  for  soiling  one  should  manage 


242  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

to  cut  it  as  near  as  one  can  in  regular  rotation  at  the  right 
time,  keeping  watch  of  the  upspringing  of  the  little  shoots 
at  the  base  of  the  stems,  since  to  cut  it  before  these  start 
will  decrease  the  second  cutting.  Once  started  right,  one 
can  mow  off  a  certain  area  each  day  and  thus  keep  it  all 
in  full  vigor.  It  is  better  for  alfalfa  to  be  allowed  to 
stand  a  few  days  too  long  than  to  be  cut  off  too  soon. 
The  best  way  to  soil  cows  is  to  have  near  the  alfalfa  field 
a  pasture  of  bluegrass,  brome  grass  or  some  other  good 
pasture  grass  with  large  movable  racks  into  which  the 
green  forage  may  be  put.  Thus  the  animals  may  largely 
balance  their  rations  as  nature  suggests  to  them.  Thus, 
also,  the  pasture  is  fed  by  the  droppings  of  the  animals, 
and  by  frequent  changes  of  location  with  the  racks  no 
manure  will  ever  be  hauled.  I  have  fed  beef  cattle  in 
this  manner  with  fine  results.  They  had  also  a  daily 
ration  of  ears  of  corn. 

How  Many  Cuttings  of  Alfalfa? — Depending  on  the 
latitude,  from  2  to  6  or  more  cuttings  are  taken  in  the 
United  States.  I  believe,  however,  that  alfalfa  is  often 
cut  too  frequently  and  that  in  our  latitude  on  the  4Oth 
parallel  (running  through  Columbus,  O.,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  and  northern  Missouri  and  the  border  between  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska)  it  is  really  better  to  cut  three  times 
than  oftener.  Commonly  alfalfa  here  will  be  ready  to 
cut  by  June  i,  and  again  by  July  10;  afterward  it  does 
not  come  on  so  rapidly,  unless  the  season  proves  very 
favorable.  The  third  cutting  will  be  delayed  till  about 
the  last  of  August.  Delays  in  doing  the  work  caused  by 
unfavorable  weather  may  prolong  these  dates  consider- 
ably. I  should  never  cut  alfalfa  in  our  latitude  in  Oc- 


INVIGORATION    FROM    MOWING  243 

tober,  unless  I  wished  to  weaken  the  roots.  However,  if 
one  can  do  the  work  promptly,  one  can  take  off  4  cuttings, 
and  we  have  frequently  done  so,  but  3  are  nearer  che 
average,  and  it  will  not  always  be  ready  to  cut  by  June. 
In  the  South  it  may  in  the  Gulf  States  be  ready  to  cut 
in  March  or  April,  and  then  of  course  one  can  hardly 
avoid  cutting  it  5,  6  or  more  times. 

Alfalfa  Must  Be  Mown  to  Invigorate  It. — In  humid 
lands  alfalfa  will  not  live  long  unless  it  is  periodically 
cut.  After  it  has  grown  a  little  while  it  ceases  to  be 
vigorous,  the  leaves  begin  to  fall  and  it  is  at  a  standstill 
until  it  is  mown ;  after  which  it  at  once  starts  into  vigor- 
ous growth  again.  Sometimes  when  it  is  time  to  cut 
alfalfa  the  growth  may  be  insignificant,  and  one  not 
knowing  the  habit  of  the  plant  might  neglect  to  cut  it, 
thinking  it  not  worth  while.  The  truth  is,  however,  it 
will  hardly  start  into  growth  at  all  until  it  is  cut  off.  I 
have  mowed  off  in  late  July  a  short  growth  of  alfalfa 
plants  hardly  worth  the  raking,  and  had  at  once  a  vigor- 
ous growth  start  up  that  made  much  more  than  a  ton  to 
the  acre  in  40  days.  The  reason  for  all  this  is  a  mystery 
past  finding  out,  but  let  the  reader  impress  here  upon 
his  memory  once  and  forever  that  alfalfa  should  never 
be  cut  before  the  shoots  at  the  base  of  the  stems  have 
indicated  that  it  is  ready,  nor  ever  let  it  stand  past  their 
coming  or  about  40  days'  growth,  no  matter  if  it  is 
no  more  than  6"  high. 

As  I  write  this  we  have  a  field  of  40  acres  of  perfectly 
healthy  alfalfa  sown  in  April  (it  is  now  August)  that 
has  been  once  cut  with  the  barley  nurse-crop,  is  now  no 
more  than  6"  to  8"  tall  and  is  beginning  to  bloom.  It 


244  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

has  set  the  buds  at  the  base  of  the  stems,  too,  and  must 
be  mown  off  or  it  will  make  little  more  growth  this  year  ; 
so,  though  it  is  a  disappointment  not  to  get  our  customary 
crop  of  hay  the  year  of  sowing,  we  shall  start  the  mowers 
soon  and  cut  it  as  close  to  the  earth  as  we  can,  knowing 
that  it  will  at  once  start  out  vigorously  and  thus  make 
strong  root  for  winter.  Though  it  might  make  a  good 
hay  crop  in  late  September,  we  shall  hardly  cut  it  then, 
depending  on  its  yielding  us  next  year  all  the  more  for 
having  been  treated  generously  this. 

How  Long  Does  Alfalfa  Endure? — I  have  seen  alfalfa 
fields  that  had  endured  in  good  thrift  for  40  years  or 
more.  These  fields  were  in  the  Southwest,  on  rich,  deep, 
dry  soil  where  alfalfa  roots  could  penetrate  for  30'  or 
more.  The  stand  was  thin,  but  each  plant  was  like  a 
small  tree  stump,  and  the  roots  like  great  gnarled  stubs  of 
.oak  fully  2"  to  3"  in  diameter.  Such  facts  as  these  have 
led  men  to  teach  that  alfalfa  will  endure  forever.  In  east- 
ern soils  and  under  an  eastern  climate  it  will  do  no  such 
thing.  It  is  commonly  at  its  best  the  second  or  third  year 
after  sowing,  and  then  declines  steadily  in  health  and  pro- 
ductiveness. To  get  the  most  good  from  growing 
alfalfa  one  should  plow  it  up  before  it  gets  thin  and  is 
displaced  by  grasses.  We  commonly  let  it  stand  three 
or  four  years ;  though  our  practice  was  to  leave  it  much 
longer,  we  now  see  the  greater  profit  in  plowing  the 
field  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  decline,  not  trying  to  resow 
or  nurse  it,  but  planting  to  corn,  manuring  the  land  for 
corn  a  second  year,  then  resowing  to  alfalfa  again. 
Thus  managed,  we  keep  our  soil  always  at  near  the 
height  of  its  production. 


VARIETIES  OF  ALFALFA  245 

Inoculating  in  Expectation  of  Solving. — I  have  given 
much  space  to  the  subject  of  alfalfa  because  it  has  en- 
grossed my  thought  for  many  years,  and  because  it 
seems  to  me  assured  that  good  farmers  everywhere  will 
desire  to  grow  it.  A  man,  for  example,  sufficiently  lib- 
eral to  possess  and  read  this  book  is  almost  sure  to  de- 
sire to  grow  alfalfa.  It  is  well  for  him  to  begin  to 
get  inoculation  into  his  soil  in  advance  of  the  time  when 
he  will  sow  alfalfa.  This  he  can  do  by  simply  sowing 
alfalfa  seed  with  his  red  clover  each  spring.  He  should 
first  make  the  land  dry  enough  for  clover  and  alfalfa. 
If  it  is  sour  lime  it ;  afterward  he  may  simply  mix  in  say 
TO  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  with  each  100  pounds  of 
clover  seed  sown  and  sow  the  clover,  preferably  in 
April,  by  harrowing  the  land  and  covering  the  seed. 
Thus  sown  a  fine  sprinkling  of  alfalfa  all  over  the  land 
will  result,  and  nature  will  attend  to  the  inoculation, 
so  that  in  a  few  years  when  he  is  ready  to  sow  to  alfalfa 
alone,  the  land  will  be  ready  for  it.  The  growth  of 
alfalfa  will  also  be  a  good  index  to  the  state  of  prepared- 
ness of  the  land. 

Varieties  of  Alfalfa. — There  are  innumerable  vari- 
eties of  alfalfa,  but  only  a  few  have  been  isolated,  and 
the  seed  is  on  the  market.  At  present  there  is  more  use 
in  getting  seed  from  certain  regions  than  there  is  in  seek- 
ing special  varieties.  For  example,  seed  from  France 
thrives  in  the  central  states;  seed  from  Algeria  (im- 
ported through  France)  is  not  hardy.  Seed  from  Kan- 
sas, Nebraska  and  Montana  is  hardy  all  over  the  eastern 
and  central  states,  and  is  the  best  supply  available  now. 
Seed  from  Arizona  is  not  hardy  in  Nebraska,  but  thrives 


246  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

in  Louisiana.  There  are  also  special  varieties  adapted 
to  special  areas.  Among  these  are  the  new  varieties 
brought  from  Siberia  by  Prof.  N.  E.  Hansen,  the  Tur- 
kestan variety  brought  earlier  by  him  and  now  in  use  in 
the  drier  parts  of  the  cold  Northwest,  and  the  so-called 
"Grimm"  alfalfa,  which  first  came  to  our  notice  as  grown 
by  German  farmers  in  Minnesota.  This  Grimm  alfalfa 
is  especially  hardy  and  productive  and  adapted  to  the 
lands  and  climates  of  the  Dakotas,  parts  of  Montana 
and  the  British  provinces. 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. — One  can  get  at  the  ground- 
work of  the  science  of  irrigating  alfalfa  if  one  will  con- 
sider certain  basal  truths.  First,  alfalfa  revels  in  moist 
soil  and  dies  in  wet  soil;  next,  standing  water  on  alfalfa 
in  hot  weather  soon  scalds  the  crowns  and  kills  it;  then, 
alfalfa  covered  with  ice  in  winter  is  destroyed.  Where 
it  is  practical,  the  best  system  of  irrigating  alfalfa  is  by 
the  furrow  method.  In  this  method  furrows  rather  deep 
and  sharply  defined  are  made  across  the  field,  running 
right  down  the  slopes,  as  a  usual  thing,  and  near  enough 
together  so  that  the  water  will  "sub"  or  soak  through 
from  side  to  side.  After  the  seed  is  sown  (commonly 
this  is  done  before  making  the  furrows,  which  are  made 
by  special  machines  built  for  the  purpose  that  open  4  or 
more  furrows  at  one  time)  one  turns  in  water  which  is 
allowed  to  flow  in  very  gentle  streams  down  the  fur- 
rows till  the  soil  is  thoroughly  soaked,  and  the  seed 
germinated  and  above  ground.  Afterward,  the  alfalfa 
is  watered  several  times  as  it  may  seem  to  need  feed  dur- 
ing the  summer.  In  the  second  year  there  will  be  small 
danger  of  washing,  and  large  streams  may  be  turned 


IRRIGATING  ALFALFA  247 

out  on  the  highest  points  along  the  head  ditch  and 
allowed  to  spread  and  flood  over  all  the  ground. 

The  second  system  is  by  the  contour  or  check  plan. 
Here  little  levees  of  earth  are  raised  across  the  field,  each 
one  on  a  contour  or  level  line  and  each  one  so  placed  that 
it  will  back  the  water  up  to  the  foot  of  the  contour 
above.  By  means  of  these  contours  the  field  is  made  into 
a  series  of  shallow  ponds  and  all  the  surface  is  covered. 
This  is  the  almost  universal  plan  followed  in  Mexico  and 
California.  It  is  adapted  to  very  level  land.  The  fur- 
row system  applies  to  land  having  a  strong  slope.  Once 
alfalfa  is  established  and  water  is  available,  the  thought 
is  to  keep  it  wet  enough  to  have  it  growing  vigorously, 
and  not  wet  enough  to  scald  it  or  drown  it.  Soils  that 
are  open,  gravelly  and  pervious  are  best  for  irrigating, 
since  they  can  not  be  filled  with  water  to  the  point  of 
drowning  the  roots.  When  water  is  abundant  one  can 
get  more  crops  than  if  it  is  scanty.  It  is  well  to  irrigate 
just  before  cutting  and  again  within  a  week  afterward. 
To  put  water  on  quickly  and  take  it  off  quickly  is  the 
safe  rule,  but  one  must  be  governed  by  the  permeability 
of  the  soil.  In  winter  time  in  arid  regions  one  must 
see  to  it  that  the  soil  is  moist,  else  one's  alfalfa  will 
winterkill. 

"Alfalfa  Farming  in  America" — There  are  many 
points  that  the  reader  should  know  about  alfalfa-growing 
— so  many  that  I  worked  for  several  years  putting  them 
into  a  book  with  the  title  quoted.  Interested  readers 
are  referred  to  that  book  for  further  details,  since  to 
give  more  space  here  to  this  queen  of  meadow  plants 
would  be  to  neglect  its  first  plan ;  that  is,  to  give  a  com- 


248  MEADOWS    AND   PASTURES 

prehensive  account  of  the  care  of  meadows  and  pastures, 
most  of  which  are  not  today  of  alfalfa. 

Meadow  foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis  L.) — This 
grass  is  closely  related  to  timothy,  for  which  it  may  be 
mistaken,  although  it  blooms  fully  a  month  earlier,  its 
stems  are  not  so  tall,  its  heads  are  shorter  and  more 
ovoid.  According  to  Hunt,  meadow  foxtail  makes  a 
good  sod  in  its  proper  habitat.  Stems  are  few,  i'  to  3' 
high,  and  sparingly  furnished  with  leaves.  The  leaves 
are  broad,  long,  thin,  and  grow  rapidly  when  cut  or  eaten 
by  live  stock.  Seed  is  sparingly  produced  and  therefore 
expensive.  It  is  generally  of  poor  vitality  and  hence  a 
good  stand  is  seldom  obtained,  at  least  in  America.  The 
number  of  seeds  per  pound  is  1,216,000.  All  commercial 
seed  is  imported. 

Lamson  says :  "It  grows  naturally  on  rather  superior 
soils  of  medium  texture,  and  constitutes  the  greater  por- 
tion of  many  of  the  richer,  natural  pastures  of  Britain. 
It  requires  two  or  three  years  after  sowing  to  arrive  at 
full  maturity  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  suitable  for  alter- 
nate husbandry."  Hackel  states  that  it  is  especially 
adapted  to  wet  meadows.  Meadow  foxtail  is  distinctly 
a  pasture  grass,  being  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  to  start 
in  the  spring.  On  rich  soils  it  may  be  tried  in  mixtures 
for  permanent  pastures  at  the  rate  of  I  pound  of  seed  to 
the  acre. 

Blue  Joint  (Calamagrostis  Canadensis). — Once  much 
of  the  open  land  of  eastern  America  was  more  or  less 
covered  with  this  fine,  tall,  nutritious  grass.  It  made 
the  typical  grass  of  the  moister  regions  of  eastern 
America  extending  well  up  into  Canada.  It  made  a 


DISTRIBUTION   OF    BLUE   JOINT  249 


Blue  joint  Grass   (Deyenxia — Calamafrostis — Canadensis), 


250  MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 

dense,  tough  sod  hard  to  break  and  where  it  grew  great 
crops  followed.  It  is  now  seen  occasionally  in  moist 
places  or  by  roadsides.  It  grows  frequently  6'  high  and 
if  cut  early  makes  hay  superior  to  timothy.  The  yield  is 
very  good  and  the  grass  is  permanent.  I  should  expect 
a  well-set  meadow  of  this  grass  to  mow  3  tons  or  more 
to  the  acre.  It  is  well  worth  cultivating  except  that  the 
seed  are  small  and  not  easy  to  get,  and  the  grass  is  slowly 
established.  For  permanent  meadow  in  moist  land  in- 
clined to  be  wet  I  know  of  no  better  grass  than  this. 
Fowl  Meadow  Grass  (Poa  serotina). — This  is  a  typi- 
cal New  England  grass  and  is  in  use  in  low  meadows 
in  Massachusetts  and  other  eastern  states.  Prof.  Beal 
says :  "It  flowers  about  the  same  time  as  timothy.  It 
makes  a  soft,  pliable  hay  of  excellent  quality.  The  stems 
in  damp  weather  branch  at  the  lower  joints  and  thus 
the  grass  is  inclined  to  spread.  On  account  of  the  large 
top  and  the  slender  stem  this  grass  when  sown  alone  is 
rather  inclined  to  lodge.  This  is  one  reason  for  growing 
it  with  stiffer  grasses,  such  as  redtop.  Like  Poa  com- 
pressa,  or  wire  grass,  it  flowers  rather  late,  has  a  dark 
green  stem  which  remains  green  and  nutritious  a  long 
time  after  the  plant  has  gone  to  seed.  It  does  not  spread 
by  rootstalks  like  bluegrass.  It  may  be  mown  late  and 
will  yet  make  nutritious  hay."  This  grass  has  not  made 
progress  elsewhere  than  in  New  England.  It  is  some- 
what difficult  to  get  good  seed.  It  will  endure  being 
overflowed  more  than  other  grasses.  A  Vermont  sta- 
tion bulletin  says :  "It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
our  native  grasses,  being  especially  adapted  to  wet,  over- 
flowed intervale  land  where  the  usual  hay  grasses  and 


FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS 


251 


Fowl  Meadow  Grass    (Poa  Serotlna), 


252  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

clovers  are  liable  to  be  killed  by  standing  water.  Redtop 
and  alsike  clover  are  capable  of  enduring  a  wetter  soil 
than  timothy  and  red  clover,  but  fowl  meadow  grass  will 
thrive  best  in  soil  where  even  redtop  and  alsike  soon 
kill  out.  There  are  many  acres  in  Vermont  now  occupied 
by  sedges  and  rushes  where  fowl  meadow  grass  would 
grow  well  if  introduced.  Seedsmen  do  not  carry  good 
seeds  of  this  grass  but  it  may  be  easily  harvested  from 
the  wild  grass  in  almost  any  town  in  Vermont,  provided 
one  knows  the  grass  when  one  sees  it." 

CARE  OF  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES. 

"Now  the  blades  of  grass  thrust  keenly  through  the  soil,  burn- 
ished and  glistening.  It  is  as  if  spring  marched  into  the  land  with 
an  army  with  banners.  Grass  is  the  most  common  and  least 
salient  of  the  phases  of  nature.  It  does  not  lift  itself  into  the  vision 
like  the  forest.  It  does  not  offer  an  everchanging  panorama  like 
the  sky.  It  has  no  dramatic  violence  like  the  sea.  Yet  nothing 
gives  a  deeper  sense  of  the  overwhelming  power  of  nature  than 
the  silent  upgushing  of  this  rich,  spreading  tide  of  green.  The 
power  that  swings  the  suns  in  a  leash  is  not  mightier  than  this 
which  slowly  and  secretly  urges  the  grass  into  the  upper  air. 
Indeed,  is  it  not  the  same  power?  There  is  not  a  nobler  symbol 
in  nature  of  the  mystery  of  renewal,  the  mystery  of  life,  than 
the  coming  of  the  grass.  To  find  a  nobler  we  must  look  into  the 
soul  of  man.  Only  there  in  its  struggle,  through  failure  and  un- 
conquerable aspiration,  toward  perfection  does  the  great  mystery 
take  on  a  loftier  beauty." 

TREATMENT  OF  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES. 

Adequately  to  treat  the  subject  of  making  a  soil  right 
and  seeding  it  to  clovers  and  grasses,  then  caring  for  the 
plants  after  I  had  them,  would  fill  a  farm  library,  so  one 
can  do  little  at  getting  it  all  into  the  space  left  in  this 


RICH   SOILS   FOR    MEADOWS  253 

book.     We  must  make  a  beginning  somewhere,  however, 
so  here  at  the  soil  is  a  good  place  to  set  in. 

Give  the  Meadow  Your  Best  Soil. — One  can  till  a 
rather  infertile  and  hard  soil  and  get  fair  returns  from 
it  because -by  tillage  one  can  hold  its  moisture  and  lib- 
erate all  the  plant  food  there  is;  but  when  one  seeds  it 
down  to  meadow  or  pasture  the  tillage  ceases,  commonly, 
and  there  is  no  way  of  conserving  moisture  or  creating  it 
unless  irrigation  is  available.  It  pays  well  to  farm  in 
this  way ;  to  till  land  as  thoroughly  as  one  can,  steadily 
draining  and  enriching  and  getting  it  into  the  highest 
state  of  productivity,  all  with  the  one  thought  toward  a 
final  end — to  get  it  at  last  laid  down  in  meadow  or  pas- 
ture. There  is  absolutely  no  doubt  that  the  greatest 
profit  can  come  from  the  meadow  some  day,  when  things 
have  been  made  right  and  the  grasses  and  clovers  are 
at  home.  Corn,  prodigious  though  it  is,  will  yield  less 
of  food  for  beast,  and,  by  transfusion,  for  man,  than 
will  alfalfa.  Many  an  acre  of  Virginia  bluegrass  is  pro- 
ducing more  beef  or  mutton  or  horseflesh  than  the  aver- 
age acre  of  Illinois  coul.d  possibly  produce.  In  the  Old 
World  men  recognize  this  truth  and  lay  down  to  per- 
manent grass  or  meadows  of  a  few  years  their  best  land, 
meantime  keeping  under  the  plow  lands  not  strong 
enough  to  be  profitable  under  other  treatment.  True, 
there  are  lands  too  rough,  steep,  rocky  or  infertile  for 
cultivation,  and  these  may  be  laid  down  to  permanent 
pasture  or  devoted  to  forestry,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two  secured,  and  from  such  land  profit  may  come;  yet 
in  the  laying  down  to  grass  of  the  best  lands  will  come 
the  greatest  profits.  Furthermore,  the  men  who  steadily 


254  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

plan  their  farm  practices  toward  fulfillment  of  a  scheme 
that  will  end  in  increasingly  large  areas  of  meadow  and 
pasture  in  the  height  of  productivity,  and  feed  to  prof- 
itable types  of  animals,  will  always  be  the  men  who  will 
steadily  grow  richer  along  with  their  grassy  fields,  and 
will  be  recognized,  too,  wherever  they  may  be,  as  men 
of  substance  and  reliability,  pillars  in  society  and  lead- 
ers in  their  counties.  There  are  curious  psychological 
reasons  for  this  that  we  have  not  time  now  to  consider. 
Getting  Land  Ready  for  Grass. — I  hope  I  may  be  per- 
mitted here  to  use  the  word  "grass"  in  the  farmer's 
acceptance  of  the  term  to  include  grasses  and  clovers 
grown  in  meadow  or  pasture,  since  it  will  be  convenient 
so  to  use  it,  and  I  have  good  scriptural  warrant  for  so 
doing.  What  type  of  soil  will  give  us  best  returns  in 
grass,  either  for  meadow  or  pasture  ?  Let  us  briefly  con- 
sider the  soil.  An  amazing  thing  it  is  to  see  how  almost 
any  soil  is  covered  with  plants,  one  nearly  as  densely 
as  another,  and  when  one  comes  to  examine  closely,  one 
finds  that  on  certain  soil  types  one  class  of  plants  is  found 
and  on  another  soil  type  a  quite  different  class  of  plants. 
For  example,  he  will  find  walnut  trees  and  bur  oaks, 
ash  and  hickory  for  timber  and  when  the  land  is  cleared 
it  will  set  to  white  clover  and  bluegrass.  It  will  grow 
strong  timothy  and  'red  clover,  wheat,  oats  or  corn. 
Under  that  soil  there  lies  limestone,  be  well  assured, 
and  mixed  through  the  soil  is  quite  a  good  deal  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  Near  by  there  may  be  seen  another  soil 
type ;  the  trees  will  be  beech  and  chestnut,  pine  and  hem- 
lock, sour  gum  and  white  oak.  When  this  land  is  cleared 
it  may  set  to  redtop  or  Canada  bluegrass,  or  perhaps 


SHEEP    IMPROVE    GRASS    LANDS 


255 


256  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

no  grass  will  naturally  set  there  at  all,  and  of  the  clovers 
alsike  thrives  best.  If  ferns  and  mosses  come  up  in  the 
field  it  grows  steadily  poorer  and  poorer  because  the 
clovers  do  not  thrive,  and  so  there  is  no  nitrogen  being 
stored  from  the  wealth  in  the  air.  If  one  will  take  pains 
to  examine  that  soil,  one  will  find  it  made  from  material 
deficient  in  carbonate  of  lime  and,  most  likely,  deficient 
also  in  phosphorus,  since  lime  and  phosphorus  often  go 
hand  in  hand.  The  plain  fact  is  that  useful  plants,  the 
best  in  nature,  love  good  soils  just  as  good  men  choose 
to  live  in  fertile  lands.  One  can  find  a  wealth  of  growth 
in  an  infertile  soil  but  it  will  be  growth  of  wild  things 
that  are  not  useful  to  man.  To  the  intending  land-buyer 
I  urge,  "Buy  a  farm  in  a  region  of  rich  soils ;  there  you 
will  find  gathering  the  best  men,  the  best  animals  will 
come  from  that  soil  and  the  best  customs  will  develop 
there.  Poor  soils  are  never  sold  as  cheaply  in  compari- 
son with  good  soils  as  they  deserve."  However,  one  may 
say  to  me,  "But  I  own  my  farm ;  it  is  not  very  fertile,  I 
admit ;  what  may  I  do  to  make  it  good  ?  I  also  wish  good 
meadows  and  pastures  and  fields  of  grain." 

Importance  of  Drainage. — First,  in  the  natural  steps  of 
development  I  should  put  drainage.  Lead  away  surplus 
soil  waters.  A  living  soil  has  moisture  through  it,  but 
also  air  in  it  all  the  time.  Only  inferior  grasses,  and  no 
clovers,  grow  in  saturated  soils.  Begin  then  by  draining, 
and  the  best  sort  of  drainage  is  underdrainage  with 
tiles.  Drainage  alone  will  work  wonders  in  a  soil  and 
the  class  and  character  of  vegetation  that  covers  it.  Not 
only  do  better  grasses  grow  on  drained  soils,  but  ani- 
mals like  them  better.  There  is  no  doubt  more  sweet- 


DRAINING  GRASS  LANDS 


257 


ness  in  grass  grown  on  drained  soil  than  in  grass  grow- 
ing on  wet  land.  I  have  seen  wonders  done  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  by  drainage;  there,  at  least,  tiles  were 
the  foundation  of  soil  improvement.  I  have  seen  heaths 
covered  over  writh  little  worthless  heather,  barren  of 
grasses  or  clovers,  first  deeply  drained  with  tiles,  then 
limed  and  enriched  and  afterwards  made  into  as  splen- 
did meadows  as  I  have  ever  seen.  Remember  always 
that  clovers  are  the  natural  allies  of  grasses,  and  clovers 
thrive  with  their  roots  in  soil  in  which  there  is  air  as 
well  as  moisture,  since  in  no  other  soil  can  their  roots 
bear  the  nodules  which  carry  the  bacteria  that  gather 
nitrogen  from  the  air  and  thus  enrich  the  soil  for  them- 
selves and  for  their  companion  grasses.  In  any  scheme 
of  soil  improvement  then  let  drainage  go  first. 

Depth  to  Underdraw. — Drains  laid  deep  do  most  good. 
Here  one  must  consider  soil  types  and  go  as  one  must. 
Sometimes  one  can  not  lay  tile  work  deeper  than  30"; 
this  depth  will,  indeed,  give  good  results  with  grasses, 
but  not  so  good  with  clovers.  I  have  laid  them  at  all 
depths  from  2  to  12',  and  now  we  lay  them,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  4'  deep.  In  draining  very  rich  soil  that  is 
to  bear  pasture  grass  alone,  however,  it  may  be  that 
shallower  drains  will  give  better  results;  thus,  in  Hol- 
land, I  have  observed  that  men  seek  to  keep  the  water 
level  about  16"  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Indeed 
they  often  have  their  ditches  so  arranged  that  they  can 
pump  water  into  them  so  that  it  will  seep  back  into  the 
land  and  keep  it  moist  in  times  of  drouth.  That  land, 
however,  seems  unnaturally  rich,  and  some  unexplained 
plan  of  nature  keeps  it  filled  with  nitrogen.  No  doubt 


258  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  feeding  of  cattle  thereon,  the  careful  husbanding  of 
manures,  the  steady  purchasing  of  foodstuffs  to  be  fed 
in  winter  supplementing  the  grass,  and  the  saving  and 
use  of  liquid  manures,  may  all  help  account  for  this 
maintenance  of  fertility  with  no  great  depth  of  soil  free 
from  water  saturation.  Then  there  are  in  that  land  cer- 
tain clovers,  both  red  and  white,  that  do  not  need  great 
depth  of  root;  they  grow  well  intermixed  with  the 
grasses,  and  all  help  to  keep  the  soil  literally  as  "rich  as 
mud."  In  America  under  ordinary  conditions  I  am  sure 
that  it  is  wise  to  drain  as  deeply  as  one  well  can;  in 
Scotland  and  England  I  found  glorious  meadow  land 
drained  as  perfectly  as  possible  to  depths  of  from  4'  to  7'. 

Deep  Drainage  Prevents  Effects  of  Drouth. — Curi- 
ously enough,  deeply-drained  land  suffers  less  from 
drouth  than  the  more  shallow-drained,  the  reason  being 
that,  in  the  deeply-drained  soil,  roots  learn  to  feed  down 
to  great  depths.  I  have  seen  barley  roots  penetrate 
nearly  10'  in  three  months'  growing,  and  all  grasses  root 
more  deeply  than  we  suppose.  The  fine  fibrous  feeding 
roots  go  far  down  if  there  is  anything  worth  going  after, 
but  they  never  go  into  standing  water;  they  drink  the 
water  that  is  called  film  moisture  only.  If  we  had  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  climate  like  the  Hollanders,  we  could 
do  no  better  than  imitate  their  water  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, but  except  along  tidal  flats  and  in  a  few  isolated 
regions  we  can  not  so  imitate,  and  must  drain  and  pre- 
pare crops  to  feed  and  forage  deep  and  wide  during 
our  seasons  of  heat  and  drouth. 

Need  of  Carbonate  of  Lime.— Rich  and  productive 
soils  everywhere  are  those  which  have  enough  carbonate 


GRASS   MAKES   WOOL  AND   MUTTON 


259 


260  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

of  lime  in  them.  The  function  of  carbonate  of  lime  is 
well  described  by  a  writer  signing  himself  "Robert  John- 
son" in  "Hoard's  Dairyman."  His  article  follows : 

"Out  in  Idaho  is  a  very  wide  desert  plain.  For  unnumbered  thou- 
sands of  years  it  has  borne  only  stunted  sage  brush,  tufts  of  scat- 
tered grass,  coyotes  and  jack  rabbits.  Far  below  the  plain,  in  a 
ragged  rock  hewn  canyon,  flowed  Snake  River.  The  desert  plain 
was  silent,  untenanted  save  in  winter  time  when  snow  made  it 
possible  for  sheep  and  cattle  to  come  out  upon  it  and  nibble  the 
bunch  grass.  Men  could  not  come  there  to  live  because  no  man  alone  ' 
nor  neighborhood  of  men  could  dam  mighty  Snake  River  and  take 
out  its  water,  life  giving  though  all  men  knew  that  water  to  be.  The 
desert  waited.  Day  came  at  last  when  one  man  crept  down  the  preci- 
pices that  walled  in  the  river  and  in  a  tiny  widening  of  the  canyon  he 
found  a  rift  of  soil  and  above  it  a  spring.  He  stayed  there  to  plant 
that  soil  and  the  alfalfa,  peaches,  apples,  prunes  thereof  were  splen- 
did. Then  this  man  came  from  his  hidden  oasis  and  told  other  men 
with  gold  and  venturous  blood  of  the  land  of  silence,  the  wide 
plain,  the  prisoned  river.  Returning  the  men  of  gold  came  with 
him  and  together  they  traveled  far  over  the  silent  land.  Next 
came  the  engineers  squinting  long  through  shining  instrument  of 
brass,  next  armies  of  men  with  herds  of  horses ;  roads  were  made, 
villages  of  tents  and  board  shacks  sprung  up,  canals  were  dug 
across  the  plain,  canals  large  enough  to  float  any  Atlantic  steam- 
ship, lacking  only  in  depth.  Other  armies  of  men  pushed  out 
perilously  on  the  glassy  rocks  at  the  brink  of  waterfalls  and  with 
cement  made  piers  and  bridges  and  then  with  gates  let  down,  the 
astonished  river  found  itself  trapped,  dammed,  made  to  flow  away 
from  its  canyon  into  new  canals.  Content  it  crept  their  winding 
lengths,  it  penetrated  quietly  every  lateral,  every  ditch ;  it  spread 
itself  out  smiling  over  the  land  in  tiny  furrows.  Thus  was  a  river 
lost  and  came  to  be  only  moisture  of  an  irrigated  plain  so  wide  that 
no  man  could  see  across  it. 

"Thus  was  regained  Paradise,  land  of  orchards  and  meadows. 
Then  came  men  from  many  lands,  men  with  plows  and  harrows, 
with  hoes  and  shovels,  men  driving  rumbling  wagons,  building  tiny 
houses  of  boards,  bringing  women  and  many  children,  planting 
trees  of  poplar,  apple  and  peach.  Thus  was  tamed  and  made  into 
farms  and  orchards  and  gardens  the  mighty  desert,  wild  and  drouth 


GRASS  LANDS  IN   IDAHO  261 

stricken  desert,  of  Idaho  on  either  side  of  winding  Snake  River. 
Thereon  sit  many  villages,  towns  and  even  cities,  while  long  lines  of 
towering  poplars  reach  up  to  proclaim  the  tale  of  a  land  made  glad. 
And  yet,  curiously  enough,  the  land  smiled  doubtfully  at  first  when 
water  was  turned  on.  Wheat  made  only  about  20  bushels  to  the 
acre,  potatoes  no  more  than  100  bushels.  These  rewards,  ample 
enough  in  Ohio  or  Pennsylvania,  were  quite  inadequate  in  the  far 
off  desert.  Men  freely  predicted  that  it  was  a  mistake  settling  the 
desert  plain,  that  the  millions  of  dollars  thrown  into  the  river  and 
its  canals  would  be  forever  sunken  and  lost,  that  the  land  was  too 
poor  to  make  farming  profitable.  Chemists  examined  the  soil  and 
learned  that  it  was  rich  in  phosphorus,  rich  in  potash,  made  indeed 
from  volcanic  ash  and  decayed  lava  rocks,  but  that  it  had  in  it  little 
nitrogen.  Now  nitrogen  is  the  life  of  soils,  the  quickening  wine 
that  invigorates  plants. 

"Nitrogen  is  the  essential  element  in  protein.  Soils  nearly  every- 
where are  starving  for  nitrogen,  so  are  the  world's  poor,  both  man 
and  beast.  Nitrogen  comes  from  the  deserts  of  Chili,  from  blood 
of  beast,  a  little  from  nitrogen  factories  in  Norway  where  the 
electric  furnaces  take  apart  the  air  and  make  captive  that  elusive 
element.  So  these  farmers  on  Idaho's  plains  could  have  brought 
nitrate  of  soda  from  South  America  or  bought  dried  blood  from 
Chicago,  only  that  the  crops  harvested  would  not  have  repaid  that 
price  and  the  great  length  of  travel.  Clearly  the  land  was  doomed 
and  the  settlers  thereof  to  poverty  and  unprofitable  toil,  unless 
some  home  source  of  nitrogen  could  be  found.  Not  that  the  farmers 
themselves  knew  clearly  what  was  wrong,  to  them  it  was  only  that 
'The  derned  land  is  poor.'  Whether  it  had  lack  of  phosphorus, 
potash,  nitrogen  or  what  not,  they  knew  not. 

"There  was  another  curious  thing  about  that  soil  that  we  have  not 
considered;  it  had  in  it  four  percent  of  carbonate  of  lime.  That  is 
a  most  extraordinary  amount  of  lime  for  an  American  soil,  its  origin 
from  volcanic  ash,  from  decayed  lava  rock  gave  it  the  lime.  Soils 
of  Maryland  or  New  York  have  in  them  usually  not  one-tenth 
that  much  lime,  maybe  not  one-fiftieth  as  much.  When  wheat  did 
not  seem  profitable  or  potatoes,  some  sowed  alfalfa.  The  alfalfa 
grew  gloriously  after  a  time.  At  first  it  sometimes  failed  to 
grow  well,  but  presently  some  miracle  happened  and  it  grew  like 
Jonah's  gourd.  That  was  when  bacteria  got  to  work.  Men  cut  it 
three  or  four  times  during  the  summer  and  harvested  as  much  ap 


262  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

6  to  10  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre.  Afterward  some  plowed  their 
alfalfa  fields  and  planted  them  to  wheat,  to  potatoes.  Herein  was 
seen  a  miracle,  the  wheat  yielded  as  much  as  75  bushels  to  the  acre 
and  the  potatoes  600  bushels.  There  was  now  nothing  wrong  in  the 
soil,  it  was  complete  in  its  fertility  and  producing  power.  Whence 
came  this  increase?  What  had  happened  to  that  soil? 

"What  had  happened  was  simply  one  of  God's  miracles,  one  of 
the  things  that  God  had  planned  when  He  made  the  world,  no  doubt. 
Nitrogen  He  knew  must  be  in  soils,  must  be  in  foods,  the  air  was 
full  of  it  but  not  in  such  form  that  plants  could  absorb  it,  so  the 
legumes,  the  clovers,  were  planned  to  store  soils  with  nitrogen. 
Alfalfa  is  a  clover,  a  vigorous,  long-living  clover.  Alfalfa  leaves 
are  as  unable  to  absorb  nitrogen  as  are  the  leaves  of  other  plants, 
so  were  designed  little  living  organisms  called  bacteria,  especially 
fitted  to  digest  the  nitrogen  that  is  in  the  air— digest  it  and  assimilate 
it  and  dying  to  turn  it  over  to  the  plants.  So  the  marvelous  produc- 
tivity of  the  Idaho  desert  'soils  is  based  on  their  large  content  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  that  and  the  fact  that  they  are  permeable  by  water 
and  air  and  have  enough  phosphorus,  potash  and  other  plant  foods. 

"Those  farms  of  Idaho  are  sure  of  a  splendid  destiny.  They  are 
rich  in  mineral  elements  of  fertility  and  because  of  that  the  alfalfa 
can  for  thousands  of  years  be  counted  on  to  bring  to  them  their 
nitrogen.  One  knows  well  that  there  will  ever  be  a  land  of  fertile 
fields  and  great  crops  in  that  wide,  western  valley,  that  never  fear 
of  hunger  will  be  felt  between  those  ranges  of  snow-capped  moun- 
tains as  long  as  the  river  flows  peacefully  through  canals  and  loses 
itself  in  cool  depths  of  alfalfa  or  wheat  or  between  rows  of  apple 
trees,  pink  and  white  with  bloom  or  gleaming  red  with  apples  in 
October.  Seventy-five  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  grow  in  Idaho, 
600  of  potatoes,  while  in  the  eastern  states  wheat  yields  from  8  to 
20  bushels  and  potatoes  in  good  years  up  to  150  bushels.  Near  2,000 
miles  of  railway  haul  to  bring  food  from  Idaho  to  New  York,  and 
within  driving  distance  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and 
Washington  one  finds  abandoned  fields  growing  up  to  pines  and 
bushes!  Why  do  we  not  develop  fields  near  at  home?  To  irrigate 
that  land  in  Idaho  costs  from  $50  to  $100  per  acre,  here  are  fields 
on  which  God  makes  rain  fall  in  gentle  showers  all  through  the 
crop  season.  What  is  wrong  in  the  East? 

"First,  let  me  say  it  is  not  the  men  that  are  wrong.  They  are 
as  good  men  who  inhabit  the  infertile  farms  of  the  East  as  the  men 


LIME  AND  SOILS  263 

who  live  on  Idaho's  plains.  The  chief  difference  is  that  the  strong, 
prudent,  daring  ones  have  gone  to  people  the  West.  Those  who  re- 
mained at  home  remained  to  combat  a  stubborn  soil  fact 

"Wherever  men  have  found  a  soil  strong  in  carbonate  of  lime 
they  have  found  a  soil  rich  and  a  soil  easily  kept  rich.  All  the  great 
and  enduring  civilizations  in  the  world  have  been  built  up  on  soils 
that  had  an  alkaline  reaction  because  of  their  abundance  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  Civilizations  that  did  not  endure  were  founded  on  soils 
that  were  sour.  Men  came  from  food,  after  all.  Food  comes  from 
fertile  soils.  Soils  are  fertile  in  proportion  to  their  being  alive,  to 
their  having  life-giving  bacteria  in  them.  These  bacteria  most 
abound  where  there  is  much  carbonate  of  lime.  In  France  large  use 
is  m'ade  of  lime  and  the  result  is  a  fertility  and  bloom  and  har- 
vest unknown  in  America.  In  France,  in  summer  one  sees  wide 
stretches  of  blooming  fields  of  clover,  alfalfa  and  sainfoin.  Lime 
makes  these  things  grow.  They  in  turn  enrich  the  soil  and  make  it 
ready  for  wheat.  Thus  are  the  people  of  France  fed  from  the 
stones.  Thus  are  fields  in  France,  that  thousands  of  years  ago  were 
cultivated  fields,  today  richer  than  any  we  find  in  eastern  America, 
where  the  land  has  not  been  plowed  yet  for  two  centuries. 

"Hnve  we  no  fields,  then,  that  have  been  limed  in  the  East  to 
show  what  results  might  follow?  Prof  E.  B.  Voorhees  on  well- 
limed  land  in  New  Jersey  grew  last  year  more  than  7  tons  of 
alfalfa  on  one  acre.  The  land  is  exactly  similar  to  what  other  Jer- 
seymen  call  poor,  and  prove  to  be  unproductive.  On  that  alfalfa 
field  he  could  now  grow  100  bushels  of  corn  or  50  bushels  of  wheat. 
Would  it  not  do  something  to  relieve  the  hunger  in  eastern  cities, 
were  there  a  million  such  fields  along  the  Atlantic  Seaboard?  Would 
that  not  reduce  much  the  cost  of  living?  In  Pennsylvania,  within 
driving  distance  of  Philadelphia,  lives  Wayne  MacVeagh.  Older 
men  will  remember  that  he  was  once  Attorney-General  when  Gar- 
field  was  President.  MacVeagh  farms  well.  Loving  his  soil,  he 
feeds  it  liberally;  the  cattle  of  this  man  are  good.  Wishing  then 
to  provide  yet  better  forage  for  his  animals,  MacVeagh  sowed 
alfalfa  but  the  alfalfa  throve  not.  Learning  that  alfalfa  needs  car- 
bonate of  lime  he  spread  that  over  his  field  and  harrowed  it  to  mix 
it  with  the  soil.  He  did  as  God  did  when  He  made  the  soils,  taking 
ground  raw  limestone  rocks  and  mixing  the  dust  through  the  soil. 
Full  six  tons  to  each  acre  he  did  spread.  Then  also  he  put  on  phos- 
phorus, and  with  that  he  waited.  Soon  a  miracle  appeared  in  that 


264  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

field ;  the  alfalfa  that  had  been  yellow,  sickly  and  in  despair  became 
all  at  once  alive,  bright  green,  full  of  thrift  and  vigor.  It  produced 
several  very  heavy  crops  of  hay;  it  beautified  the  hillside;  it  enriched 
the  soil;  it  made  the  old  man  see  a  vision  and  caused  him  to  plan 
wisely  and  well  to  cover  yet  more  fields  with  lime,  mother  of  alfalfa; 
to  cover  more  fields  with  alfalfa,  to  better  feed  his  cows  and  better 
feed  his  land.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  the  key,  then,  that  unlocks  the 
strong  door  leading  to  soil  enrichment  in  the  East. 

"Would  you  hear  another  story?  There  lived  in  California  a 
man  named  J.  F.  Jack.  This  man  knew  of  ranching  and  irrigation, 
of  alfalfa,  oranges  and  farming.  He  had  never  lived  in  the  East. 
Because  he  wondered  that  God  out  of  His  goodness  made  it  to  rain 
on  the  eastern  farms  while  He  left  the  western  farms  dry,  Mr.  Jack 
went  to  Virginia  to  study  the  strange  situation.  At  that  time  he 
did  not  know  that  the  long  drouth  of  the  West,  enduring  for  un- 
numbered centuries,  had  saved  for  them  their  carbonate  of  lime;  he 
did  not  know  that  eastern  soils  are  starved  for  it.  Because  he  liked 
the  people  of  Virginia,  Mr.  Jack  bought  a  great  plantation  on  the 
Rappahannock  River.  There  he  essayed  to  make  alfalfa  grow  and 
at  first  it  would  not  grow.  Then  he  took  counsel  with  wise  men  in 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  they  told  him  of  the  lime  need  of 
his  soil  and  how  it  was  famished  for  humus  and  hungry  for  phos- 
phorus. He  brought  lime,  crimson  clover  followed,  that  turned  un- 
der made  humus  and  alfalfa  was  sown.  Last  year  from  300  acres 
of  once  worn-out  land,  Mr.  Jack  harvested  1200  tons  of  alfalfa  hay. 
Afterward  he  had  a  shipload  of  ground  limestone  brought  to  his 
wharf  and  in  one  summer  700  tons  more  of  the  life-giving  carbonate 
of  lime  went  out  to  his  soil  to  make  ready  more  acres  for  alfalfa. 
Some  day  there  one  will  see  a  thousand  acres  in  one  glorious  alfalfa 
field,  a  most  hopeful  thing  for  old  Virginia,  a  thing  that  should 
make  Virginia  farmers,  young  and  old,  think  long  and  well  and  take 
new  heart. 

"Here  is  fresh  field  for  exploitation.  In  Jersey  are  thousands  of 
acres  of  land  turned  out  to  pines.  The  land  is  termed  poor,  and 
they  say  well  who  call  it  poor.  It  has  in  it  no  life-giving  carbonate 
of  lime  and  little  of  any  other  element  of  fertility.  No  man  can 
now  till  that  land  and  make  it  pay.  Yet  from  those  barren  fields 
one  can  drive  with  two  horses  and  a  farm  wagon  to  the  crowded 
streets  of  Philadelphia  or  New  York.  Prof.  Voorhees  has  shown 
that  this  land  can  easily  be  redeemed.  Here  lies  the  way.  First 


COST  OF  LIMESTONE  265 

carbonate  of  lime  enough  to  take  away  the  sourness  of  the  land  and 
make  it  sweet  instead.  Next  some  good  growth  on  the  land  to  turn 
under  and  make  life  in  the  soil.  Crimson  clover  or  cowpeas  will  do 
that.  Then  alfalfa  or  red  clover,  and  after  these  crops  the  stubble 
when  plowed  will  grow  gardens  or  potatoes  or  corn.  True,  one  must 
buy  phosphorus;  that  costs  not  much  when  the  lime  is  in  the  soil, 
for  a  pound  of  phosphorus  will  last  as  long  on  land  with  lime  in  it 
as  5  pounds  will  when  the  land  is  lime-hungry.  In  Jersey  are  great 
mountains  of  limestone  rock.  Crushers  there  are  and  grinders  ready 
made  to  powder  this  rock  and  railways  ready  to  take  it  to  the  soil. 
It  is  almost  parallel  to  the  story  of  Idaho;  there  flowed  the  Snake 
River  in  its  deep  canyon,  doing  no  manner  of  good  to  herb  or  tree. 
There  came  strong  men  and  turned  Snake  River  out  to  water 
the  fields.  Here  lie  solemn  mountains  rich  at  heart  with  priceless 
carbonate  of  lime;  near  by  are  barren  fields  suffering  for  this  one 
thing.  Now  should  men  come  to  grind  this  lime  and  make  channels 
to  carry  it  out  to  the  fields?  If  men  with  gold  wished  they  could 
indeed  buy  these  Jersey  lands  for  any  song  and  fill  them  with  lime, 
sow  them  to  alfalfa,  make  them  rich  and  beautiful  and  sell  them 
again  to  farmers  who  would  use  them  to  make  food  for  the  markets 
of  our  cities.  It  is  a  work  that  should  belong  to  strong  men,  for  the 
need  of  such  lime  is  great,  ten  full  tons  of  ground  and  unburned 
lime  dust  would  be  none  too  much  for  an  acre  of  hungry  land,  and 
men  with  means  could  own  their  own  railway  cars  and  grinders  and 
put  the  stuff  out  for  a  small  price  and  in  large  amounts. 

"Strange  it  is,  but  in  Illinois,  state  of  rich  soils,  most  has  been 
done  in  this  endeavor.  There  Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  has  persuaded 
his  state  to  set  convicts  to  grinding  limestone  in  the  penitentiary  at 
Menard.  There  the  men  grind  the  stone  and  load  it  on  cars,  and  the 
state  sells  it  to  the  farmers  for  65  cents  a  ton,  and  the  railways, 
wishing  to  make  farms  more  productive  so  that  they  in  turn  might 
have  the  freight  to  haul,  do  haul  these  cars  of  stone  dust  a  mile  for 
20  cents,  each  car  laden  with  40  tons  of  ground  limestone. 

"It  is  a  wonderful  thought,  is  it  not,  that  men  leave  their  land  near 
eastern  cities,  crowded  with  hungry  people  willing  and  able  to  pay 
their  price — leave  these  old  states  and  migrate  to  the  arid  West, 
thousands  of  miles  from  their  customers  and  there  expend  more 
money  to  get  water  on  the  land  so  that  .they  may  grow  crops  to  feed 
the  people  of  the  eastern  cities  than  they  would  have  had  to  expend 
on  their  old  acres  near  those  cities  in  putting  carbonate  of  lime  on 


266  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

their  fields,  putting  alfalfa  or  clover  there,  getting  fertility  there  so 
that  they  could  have  grown  bounteous  crops  right  at  their  hungry 
customers'  doors!  It  will  take  less  money  to  make  acres  fertile  in 
Jersey,  Virginia  and  New  York  than  it  will  to  water  other  acres 
already  fertile  but  arid  in  the  far  off  West." 

In  Maryland  one  sees  shell  roads  built  through  soils 
so  sandy  that  they  are  half  barren.  Where  the  wheels 
grind  up  the  shells  into  dust  and  the  dust  is  washed 
down  over  the  soil,  bluegrass  and  white  clover  spring 
up  and  a  good  sod  is  made.  Bear  in  mind  -that  there 
is  a  good  deal  of  horse  manure  left  there  besides  the 
carbonate  of  lime.  The  ground  shells  alone  might  not 
have  done  and  probably  would  not  have  done  the  work. 
In  Alabama  on  sandy  coast  land  there  is  growing  fine 
alfalfa,  the  work  of  carbonate  of  lime  applied  liber- 
ally. In  Florida  the  same  story  is  told,  and  in  truth 
wherever  man  has  used  carbonate  of  lime  with  intelli- 
gence he  has  had  meadow  or  pasture  to  show  for  it. 

Further,  carbonate  of  lime  changes  the  character,  even 
the  species  and  varieties,  of  grasses  and  clovers  growing 
on  a  soil.  When  it  is  deficient  one  sees  broom  sedge 
(not  a  good  grass),  redtop,  Canada  bluegrass  and  many 
other  grasses  of  inferior  value.  With  the  balance  of 
carbonate  of  lime  restored,  the  soil  is  made  sweet,  clovers 
enrich  it  and  the  broom  sedge  disappears,  as  do  the  red- 
top  and  Canada  bluegrass  and  are  replaced  with  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass,  timothy  and  clovers. 

There  is  yet  another  side  to  the  carbonate  of  lime  mat- 
ter. Where  it  is  abundant  in  soils  grasses  growing  there 
are  sweet  and  well-flavored,  and  animals  relish  them. 
Thus  one  may  find  parts  of  a  pasture  eaten  down  close 
and  other  parts  neglected,  the  parts  eaten  close  -being 


EFFECT  OF  LIME  ON  GRASSES  267 

where  there  is  most  lime  in  the  surface  soil.  I  have 
often  observed  on  our  own  pastures  that  on  certain  hill- 
tops and  slopes  where  erosion  has  put  the  limestone 
pebbles  in  the  surface  soil  the  horses  gnaw  the  grass  to 
the  earth,  while  in  other  parts  of  the  field  with  less  lime 
in  the  surface  soil  the  grass  is  left  uneaten. 

Lime  Sweetens  Pastures. — Experiment  has  shown  that 
animals  so  much  prefer  the  grass  that  grows  on  limed 
soil  (supposing  it  to  have  been  lime-deficient)  that 
there  is  nothing  that  pays  better  than  to  sweeten  old  pas- 
tures with  lime  before  any  other  work  of  improvement 
is  begun,  though  this  and  drainage  go  right  together. 
One  can  not  have  sweet  grass  unless  it  is  on  land  free 
from  both  soil  acids  and  excess  of  moisture.  If  an  old 
pasture  is  to  be  sweetened  the  lime  may  be  applied  as 
a  top-dressing,  in  any  form  most  convenient,  either 
ground  limestone,  freshly-slaked  quick  lime  applied  in 
powder  form,  air-slaked  lime,  or  carbonate  of  lime. 
Naturally  the  least  harmful  form  is  the  raw  ground  lime- 
stone, and  when  this  is  available  at  a  low  price  it  should 
be  chosen.  The  amounts  that  are  advisable  to  use  are, 
of  fresh-burned  and  slaked  lime,  from  2  to  4  tons  to 
the  acre;  air-slaked  lime  from  2  to  6  tons  to  the  acre; 
carbonate  of  lime  from  2  to  10  tons  to  the  acre. 

I  recall  an  amusing  instance  of  the  effect  of  raw  pow- 
dered lime  dust  on  pasture.  A  friend  in  the  bluegrass 
land  of  Kentucky  allowed  a  contractor  to  take  from  his 
field  stone  which  was  crushed  and  carried  to  the  high- 
way. The  crusher  made  a  good  deal  of  dust  which  the 
wind  carried  to  the  leeward  until  several  acres  were  more 
or  less  powdered  with  the  white  dust.  My  friend  was 


268  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

much  disturbed  to  see  this  dust  and  to  observe  that  the 
cattle  refused  to  eat  the  grass  where  it  lay,  and  sug- 
gested to  the  contractor  that  he  owed  damages  for  this 
nuisance  and  to  this  the  contractor  agreed.  Then  a  rain 
came  and  washed  off  the  grass  and  put  some  of  the  dust 
into  the  soil.  Afterward  there  was  very  marked  dif- 
ference in  the  aspect  of  the  grass,  the  dusted  grass  being 
markedly  superior  and  much  more  greedily  eaten  by 
the  cattle,  so  that  my  friend  laughingly  recalled  his  com- 
plaint. It  seems  fairly  effective  simply  to  dust  lime  over 
the  sod  on  old  pastures,  though  doubtless  much  of  it  is 
slow  to  be  worked  down  to  where  it  is  effective  and 
sometimes  it  would  be  advisable  to  disk  or  harrow  it  into 
the  soil.  If  there  is  a  good  sod,  however,  the  earth 
worms  will  be  abundant  there  and  their  casts  will  be 
laid  above  the  lime  particles  so  that  finally  they  will  be 
worked  down  to  moist  earth. 

Effect  of  Lime  on  Pastured  Animals. — In  some  re- 
gions it  is  common  to  find  animals  licking  the  lime  wash 
from  fences  and  buildings,  gnawing  bones,  and  in  other 
ways  displaying  their  lime-hunger.  No  good  animals 
can  ever  be  produced  on  such  soils — at  least  not  until 
they  are  corrected.  Lime-hunger  in  a  soil  means  lime- 
hunger  in  plants  and  lime  deficiency  there,  and  that,  in 
turn,  means  animals  eating  the  herbage  will  be  deficient 
in  bone,  in  stamina  and  substance.  Furthermore,  ani- 
mals in  heavy  milk  can  not  possibly  maintain  their  nat- 
ural body  lime  content,  as  has  been  shown  by  experi- 
ments at  the  Wisconsin  station,  and  this  lime  exhaustion 
in  the  milk-giving  animal  is  doubtless  responsible  for 
much  of  the  breakdown  among  heavy  milkers. 


HORSES  ON   LIMESTONE  PASTURES 


260 


270  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Animals  and  Pastures  Rich  in  Lime. — There  are  pas- 
tures noted  the  world  over  for  their  splendid  animals. 
At  Nogent-le-Rotrou  in  France  I  was  sho\vn  pastures  on 
which  could  be  produced  the  most  splendid  types  of 
Percheron  colts.  These  pastures  were  where  they  had 
the  river  wash  from  the  Huisne,  a  stream  that  breaks 
through  hills  of  soft  limestone.  These  bottoms  are  doubt- 
less very  rich  in  lime  and  in  phosphates  too;  they  bear 
splendid  thick  grass,  and  colts  grazing  on  them  will 
make  marvelous  development,  while  if  they  w^ere  pas- 
tured on  the  sandstone  soils  a  mile  away  they  would 
make  only  common  work  horses  with  no  hope  of  coming 
to  America  as  founders  of  a  new  race.  In  England  it 
has  long  been  recognized  that  pastures  rich  in  lime  and 
phosphorus  made  the  best  race  horses  and  the  best  bone 
in  drafters.  So  much  is  this  believed  that  breeders  there 
do  not  hesitate  to  go  to  great  lengths  artificially  to  lime 
pastures  devoted  to  mares  and  colts  of  royal  blood.  There 
carbonate  of  lime  in  the  shape  of  chalk  is  commonly 
used,  though  more  or  less  burned  lime  is  also  applied  and 
very  much  lime  in  combination  with  phosphorus  in  the 
form  of  basic  slag.  In  our  own  land  we  have  the  ex- 
ample of  Kentucky  sending  out  a  steady  stream  of  splen- 
did colts,  bulls,  sheep  and  men  from  that  central  region 
where  the  rich  limestone  lay  near  the  surface,  and  where 
their  decay  has  left  the  land  rich  in  both  limestone  and 
phosphorus.  There  are  other  regions  nearly  as  notable, 
and  many  a  failure  has  been  recorded  where  men  have 
taken  good  animals  to  soils  deficient  in  lime  and  sought 
to  breed  young  things  as  good  as  their  sires  and  dams. 
Without  exception,  if  they  depended  on  the  herbage  of 


EFFECT  OF  LIME  ON  STOCK  271 

the  natural  pasture,  the  attempt  has  resulted  in  failure. 
One  of  the  regions  where  the  effect  of  lime  in  the  soil 
is  most  markedly  shown  is  in  our  own  arid  West.  In  that 
region  there  is  commonly  about  2  to  4  per  cent  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  present  in  the  surface  soil,  and  grasses 
growing  out  of  that  land  are  very  sweet  and  nutritious. 
Furthermore,  the  water  of  spring  and  stream  is  invari- 
ably impregnated  with  lime  salts.  Horses  grown  on  the 
grass  of  that  land  have  astonishing  bone,  hard,  dense 
and  nearly  four  times  as  strong  and  tough  as  the  bone 
of  horses  grown  on  grasses  in  lime-deficient  soils  of  the 
East.  In  France  the  Government  once  made  examina- 
tion of  soldiers,  grouping  them  according  to  their  birth- 
place, and  found  that  those  from  regions  where  lime- 
stone abounded  were  nearly  1%"  taller  and  correspond- 
ingly stronger  and  healthier  than  those  from  the  lime- 
deficient  lands. 

Feeding  Lime  and  Bone  to  Animals. — While  there  is 
lack  of  accurate  data  as  to  the  effect  of  feeding  mineral 
substances  directly  to  animals  where  the  herbage  is  sup- 
posedly lime-deficient,  yet  we  have  proof  that  there  is 
considerable  gain  in  the  practice.  If  one  has  not  yet  suf- 
ficiently limed  one's  soil  so  that  the  forage  has  in  it  nor- 
mal or  above  normal  lime  supply,  one  can  lime  the  food 
or  water  that  the  animals  drink.  There  are  several  ways 
that  this  has  been  done.  L.  Ogilvy  of  Colorado  has 
placed  lump  lime  in  the  drinking  troughs  with  good 
results,  and  says  it  is  a  practice  among  some  successful 
horse  breeders  in  England.  The  amount  of  lime  should 
be  small ;  a  piece  of  fresh-burned  lime  as  large  as  an  egg 
dropped  into  a  troughful  of  water  say  once  or  twice 


272  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

a  week  would  seem  to  afford  lime  enough.  Air-slaked 
lime  may  also  be  mixed  with  the  salt  at  the  rate  of  about 
equal  parts,  and  the  mixture  kept  always  before  animals, 
so  that  they  will  not  become  hungry  enough  for  salt  to 
eat  too  much  at  one  time.  Bonemeal  is  prepared  espe- 
cially for  stock-feeding  and  may  be  fed  in  .any  amount; 
what  is  not  digested  and  retained  will  feed  the  pasture. 

Example  of  What  Lime-Deficiency  Will  Do. — I  know 
land  that  appears  at  first  glance  a  paradise  for  animals 
and  men.  It  lies  at  an  altitude  of  between  3,000  and 
4,500  feet  in  the  southern  mountains.  It  has  rich,  black 
soil  filled  with  humus  and  a  thousand  springs  of  spark- 
ling soft  water.  The  grasses  and  clovers  grow  fairly 
well,  though  the  shyness  about  either  to  remain  in  the 
land  is  indicative  of  lime-hunger.  The  water  is  like  dis- 
tilled water.  The  cattle  of  that  land  are  very  small, 
with  especially  small  bone.  The  men  are  short,  slender 
and  not  strong.  A  friend  cleared  up  a  large  sheep  farm 
there  and  put  on  it  Southdown  and  Shropshire  sheep  of 
fine  breeding.  He  gave  them  intelligent  care,  yet  stead- 
ily the  flock  deteriorated,  the  size  ran  down,  the  bone 
diminished,  health  and  vigor  were  hard  to  maintain,  and 
at  last  the  down  sheep  were  replaced  by  Merinos  which 
throve  far  better  for  the  very  evident  reason  that  Merino 
lambs  are  far  slower  in  maturing  than  the  downs  and 
thus  had  time  gradually  to  accumulate  what  lime  they 
needed  for  bone-building  and  body  use.  While  these 
pastures  were  too  inaccessible  to  have  lime  hauled  onto 
them,  I  think  the  flock  could  have  been  maintained  by 
the  simple  expedient  of  feeding  bonemeal  and  putting 
lime  into  the  drinking  water  and  the  salt. 


BONEMEAL  AND  BASIC  SLAG  273 

Bonemeal  and  Basic  Slag. — As  sources  of  lime  and 
phosphorus,  bonemeal  and  basic  slag  must  be  considered. 
Bonemeal  is  rich  in  phosphorus,  has  some  nitrogen  and 
considerable  lime  in  the  form  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
There  is  hardly  any  fertilizer  so  good  for  stimulating 
grasses  and  clovers  as  bonemeal.  Its  one  drawback  is 
the  price,  but  this  is  commonly  paid  back  and  often  sev- 
eral times  over.  There  is  no  fear  of  bonemeal  leaching 
from  the  land ;  it  is  a  permanency  once  applied.  I  have 
seen  marvelous  results  from  its  use  in  the  South  where 
it  is  in  common  use  for  lawn-making  on  very  infertile 
soils.  The  fact  that  bonemeal  supplies  some  nitrogen 
as  well  as  phosphorus  is  all  in  its  favor  in  establishing 
and  feeding  grasses  and  clovers. 

Basic  slag  is  a  by-product  of  the  steel-making  plants. 
Foreign  ores  have  a  surplus  of  phosphorus,  which  is  re- 
moved by  smelting  them  with  limestone,  the  lime  united 
with  the  phosphorus  making  phosphate  of  lime.  The 
slag  is  ground  finely,  and  the  finer  it  is  ground  the  more 
valuable  it  is,  since  it  is  more  available.  It  may  contain 
15  to  20  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  50  per  cent  more 
or  less  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Basic  slag  is  the  founda- 
tion of  pasture  improvement  in  the  Old  World.  Its  use 
brings  in  better  grass  and  many  clovers.  It  seems  lit- 
tle less  than  miraculous  to  see  how  the  sods  become  cov- 
ered over  with  young  clovers  where  basic  slag  is  used  on 
pastures  in  England.  Unfortunately,  our  own  steel  mills 
do  not  make  basic  slag  and  the  freights  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Middle  West  are  almost  prohibitive  of  its  use. 

Lime,  Drainage,  Phosphorus,  then  What? — After  all, 
one  can  not  make  a  short  cut  by  chemical  means  to  na- 


274  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

hire's  results  in  fertility-building.  Nature  builds  soils  by 
long  accretions  of  fertility  and  by  slowly  accumulating 
organic  matter,  humus.  We  can  not  put  mere  chemicals 
into  a  poor  soil  and  get  the  same  results  that  nature  gives 
in  her  slower  way.  Vegetable  matter  is  needed.  The 
slow  decay  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  needed  to 
promote  nature's  wondrous  soil  chemistry.  The  soil  is 
a  true  laboratory.  There  are  little  bacteria  living  on 
decaying  vegetable  matter  that  do  miracles  there,  gath- 
ering nitrogen  of  their  own  accord,  and  other  bacteria 
in  that  very  mysterious  place,  the  soil,  are  at  work  too. 
Make  the  soil  sweet,  feed  it  phosphorus,  and  potassium 
if  need  be,  but  after  all  this  is  done  add  all  the  organic 
matter  you  can.  Manure  makes  land  rich  now  as  it  did 
in  the  days  of  our  fathers.  Chemicals  help,  are  essential, 
indeed;  but  after  them  one  must  conserve  organic  mat- 
ter and  increase  it  all  one  can. 

Two  Lessons  in  Meadow-Building. — Some  years  ago 
we  bought  a  very  poor  field  and  began  work  at  reclaim- 
ing it.  One  corner  was  especially  unfertile,  a  cold,  wet 
clay.  We  drained  this  corner,  then  enriched  it  well, 
spreading  over  it  a  good  deal  of  stable  manure.  The 
rest  of  the  field  was,  some  of  it,  very  fertile  land  and  had 
naturally  less  manure,  though  all  the  field  had  more  or 
less  manure  and  all  alike  was  treated  with  phosphorus. 
The  land  was  sown  to  alfalfa.  At  the  outset  the  alfalfa 
on  this  poor  corner  was  lighter  than  elsewhere,  but  after 
two  years  the  heaviest  growth  came  from  this  part;  the 
field  was  reversed  and  what  was  originally  the  poor  cor- 
ner became  the  most  productive.  There  would  seem  now 
no  reason  why  this  condition  may  not  be  maintained. 


EFFECT  OF  MANURE  ON  GRASSES  275 

• 

The  other  lesson  is  of  a  field  not  manured  but  deeply 
plowed  and  cultivated  20  times,  then  fertilized  with 
various  artificial  fertilizers,  no  manure  given,  and  seeded 
to  grass  under  the  "Clark  method."  A  good  stand  of 
grass  was  secured  and  the  first  year  saw  a  heavy  crop 
of  hay.  The  following  year,  however,  the  yield  was 
but  ordinary  and  the  third  year  saw  the  field  in  worse 
condition  than  those  about  it.  The  evident  lesson  is 
that  the  deep  plowing,  the  frequent  cultivation  during 
warm  weather  preparatory  to  seeding  the  crop,  used  up 
a  good  deal  of  the  humus  needed  to  make  the  land  have 
moisture-holding  and  bacteria-growing  qualities,  so  that 
the  last  state  of  that  land  was  worse  than  the  first.  It 
may  be  that  had  this  field  been  top-dressed  with  manure 
after  the  first  year  it  would  have  maintained  itself,  but 
it  is  clear  that  chemicals  alone  on  soils  deficient  in  humus- 
will  not  make  permanently  for  large  yields  of  grains  or 
clovers. 

Manure  in  Soils  like  Yeast  in  Bread. — Manure, 
vegetable  matter  decaying  in  the  soil,  acts  much  as  does 
yeast  in  the  moist  dough ;  it  starts  ferments,  bacterial 
processes,  some  of  them  understood,  some  of  them  not. 
For  example,  we  once  bought  a  poor  field  and  at  once 
re-sold  half  of  it  to  a  neighbor.  Our  half  we  treated 
with  acid  phosphate,  tankage,  good  plowing  and  a  very 
slight  sprinkling  of  manure.  The  land  was  then  sown 
to  clover  with  oats  or  barley.  Our  neighbor  imitated  us 
exactly  except  that,  having  no  manure,  he  omitted  it. 
We  secured  a  good  stand  and  a  fine  heavy  growth  of 
clover.  Our  neighbor  secured  a  fair  stand  and  a  light 
growth.  The  amount  of  manure  applied  was  insignifi- 


276  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

* 

cant,  so  far  as  the  actual  fertility  contained  in  it,  but  it 
was  pregnant  with  results  when  it  came  to  act. 

Cowpeas  and  Bluegrass. — In  Virginia  the  best  farmers 
desiring  to  sow  worn  limestone  clays  to  bluegrass  com- 
monly put  the  land  first  in  cowpeas,  which  are  turned 
under  with  all  their  growth.  Afterward  bluegrass  takes 
well  and  the  effect  of  the  peas  is  seen  for  some  time; 
whereas  it  might  be  nearly  impossible  to  establish  the 


Bluegrass   (40  Ibs.   green)  from  a  square  rod  of  Unmanured  Land — Equal  to  6,400 
Ibs.  green  per  acre. 

bluegrass.  The  conclusion  is  irresistible:  manure,  veg- 
etable matter  decaying  in  the  soil,  is  the  mother  of  grass 
and  clover. 

Moisture  the  Limiting  Factor  in  Grass  Production. — 
What  limits  the  production  of  meadow  or  pasture  is  the 
moisture  supply.  In  not  one  year  in  a  century  is  it  ample 
at  all  seasons.  Plants  drink  their  food,  and  can  make  no 
growth  in  dry  soil.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  devote  the 
better  more  moisture-holding  soils  to  grasses,  and  put 


HUMUS  NEEDED  IN   SOILS  277 

the  drouthy  soils  to  cultivated  crops.  Moisture  is  con- 
served by  deep  plowing  and  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Deep 
plowing  on  certain  types  of  soil  will  help  the  grass,  but 
cultivation  after  once  meadow  or  pasture  is  laid  down 
must  cease.  Alfalfa  meadows  are  sometimes  tilled  after 
being  cut,  but  no  other  meadow  plant  seems  adapted  to 
this  culture,  and  it  is  hardly  proved  that  it  is  profitable 
so  to  treat  alfalfa.  It  is  notable  that  soils  well  filled  with 


Bluegrass  (125  Ibs.  green)  from  a  square  rod  of  Manured  Land — Equal  to  20,000 
Ibs.    green   per   acre. 

humus  hold  more  moisture  than  those  without  vegetable 
matter,  as  the  latter  dry  out  like  brick  and  are  not  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  shallow-rooted  grasses.  If  one 
wishes  to  grow  grasses  on  these  hard  soils  one  should 
strive  to  get  into  them  as  much  manure  or  vegetable  mat- 
ter of  any  kind  as  can  be  secured,  and  afterward  try 
so  to  manage  that  the  grass  will  in  a  manner  mulch 
itself  by  leaving  enough  of  it  to  shade  the  land.  There 
is  great  virtue  in  shading  land,  thus  preventing  injury 


278  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

\ 

from  sun-burning.  Some  careful  pastoralists  manage 
their  pastures  so  that  the  sun  never  reaches  the  earth 
because  the  grass  is  never  eaten  down  bare.  Animals 
are  kept  off  in  spring  till  the  grass  has  a  good  start,  and 
afterward  the  amount  of  stock  turned  to  pasture  is  so 
proportioned  that  the  grass  is  always  a  little  ahead  of 
the  beasts  grazing  it. 

Making  Water  Meadows. — In  England  and  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  the  effect  of  irrigation  of  meadow- 
land  is  well  understood,  and  there  when  it  is  possible 
grasslands  are  arranged  to  be  irrigated.  I  have  seen  in 
England  water  meadows  so  old  that  each  little  ditch 
bringing  irrigation  water  was  situated  on  the  summit 
of  a  little  ridge,  whence  the  water  flowed  gently  in  every 
direction.  The  ridge  effect  was  the  result  of  countless 
grains  of  sand  and  silt,  brought  by  water  through  the 
long  years  that  it  has  run  in  these  meadows,  deposit- 
ing in  the  entangling  grass  blades  and  among  the  roots, 
thus  steadily  building  the  soil  each  year  a  little  higher. 
It  seems  the  practice  in  these  meadows  to  allow  the  water 
to  flow  in  almost  continuous  stream,  though  it  is  so 
distributed  that  only  a  trickle  goes  out  at  each  point 
where  it  is  diverted.  The  yield  of  grass  obtained  from 
these  meadows  is  large,  so  that  they  commonly  bring 
rentals  of  £3  and  more  per  acre,  whereas,  common 
meadow  land  may  bring  no  more  than  £i.  I  have  seen 
no  water  meadows  in  America  comparable  to  these  of 
Europe  since  here  irrigation  is  almost  altogether  confined 
to  the  arid  West,  and  is  given  chiefly  to  alfalfa,  though 
along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierras  in  California  and 
Nevada  I  have  seen  irrigated  pastures  of  bluegrass  and 


WHERE  GRASS  PAYS 


279 


white  clover  that  yielded  marvelous  burdens  of  forage. 
Furthermore,  cattle  on  those  irrigated  pastures  become 
as  fat  as  we  can  make  them  in  Ohio  with  grass  and  corn. 
I  think  one  of  the  first  works  that  should  be  undertaken 
to  increase  the  production  of  grass,  beef,  mutton  and 
colts  on  eastern  fields  should  be  to  begin  to  utilize  our 
streams,  now  all  running  to  waste,  in  irrigating  grass 
fields.  It  is  not,  of  course,  possible  except  in  exceptional 
locations,  and  the  first  installation  costs  labor  and  money, 
but  after  once  it  is  installed  the  maintenance  is  very 
cheap  and  the  production  of  the  land  should  be  nearly 
trebled.  Water  meadows,  however,  commonly  need  no 
other  fertilization  than  that  brought  by  the  water,  and 
build  themselves  steadily  in  fertility  from  year  to  year. 
Where  Grass  is  Most  Profitable. — The  fact  that  the 
moisture  supply  is  the  limiting  factor  in  the  production 
of  meadows  and  pastures  determines  to  a  considerable 
degree  their  profitable  placing.  Where  there  is  abundant 
summer  rainfall  there  grow  the  rankest  grasses;  where 
heats  and  drouth  prevail  there  one  must  plow  and  till 
in  order  to  reap.  Thus  New  England,  New  York  and 
the  moist  mountain  valleys  of  Virginia  seem  the  most 
natural  grass  regions  of  the  United  States,  though  good 
production  is  seen  as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  south  to  the  line  of  Tennessee.  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  have  decreasing  rainfall  and  hot 
summers;  here  evidently,  deep-rooted  crops  such  as 
alfalfa,  or  tilled  crops  such  as  corn  or  sorghum,  are 
most  profitable.  Thus  in  Oklahoma  and  the  Panhandle 
of  Texas  it  once  required  20  acres  to  keep  a  steer  a  year 
on  the  short  but  thick  and  nutritious  grass  that  was 


280  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

native  to  the  region.  No  growth  could  take  place  during 
most  of  the  summer  months,  and  only  during  periods  of 
rainfall  could  grasses  advance.  In  those  regions  the 
advent  of  the  plow  was  truly  in  accordance  with  sound 
practice,  for  by  deep  plowing  and  good  tillage  much 
moisture  that  falls  in  winter  is  conserved  and  the  deep 
rooting  corn,  sorghum  and  Kaffir-corn  make  good 
growth.  I  have  seen  sorghum  stalks  12'  high  alongside 
the  native  buffalo  or  grama  grass  4"  high.  The  lesson 
is  clear :  In  hot  countries  there  is  always  lack  of  moisture 
near  the  surface  and  there  one  should  plant  things  that 
root  deep  or  plant  annuals  that  permit  good  soil  culture 
in  preparation  of  their  establishment. 

Seeding  the  Nezv  Grassland.— \Nz  have  now  taken  a 
general  survey  of  the  situation.  Let  us  get  out  and  sow 
down  a  bit  of  pasture  or  meadow  land.  First,  scan  the 
land  itself.  Let  us  walk -over  it.  Is  it  well-drained? 
If  not,  choose  where  tiles  or  open  ditches  will  best  draw 
away  the  water  that,  stagnant  in  the  land,  brings  in 
rank  stuffs  that  we  do  not  want  and  discourage  the  good 
things.  Is  it  sour  ?  We  can  after  a  little  experience  and 
observation  judge  of  that,  and  if  we  are  in  doubt  we  can 
test  the  soil  with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  and 
see  if  we  get  effervescence,  or  we  can  adapt  our  grasses 
to  a  sour  soil  if  we  do  not  care  to  sweeten  it  with  lime. 
Then  we  study  its  fitness  in  the  matter  of  accumulation 
of  vegetable  matter,  humus.  If  it  is  very  sandy,  grav- 
elly or  clayey,  and  has  in  it  little  organic  matter,  we 
must  do  something  for  that  sooner  or  later.  Perhaps 
we  will  wish  to  plow  first,  then  run  the  manure  spreader 
over  the  field  and  disk  in  the  manure  left  there.  And 


AID    FROM    DEEP    PLOWING  281 

finally  to  the  questions  of  how  to  plow,  when  to  plow, 
when  to  sow,  and  what  to  sow. 

Plowing. — There  assuredly  are  soils  that  are  helped 
enormously  by  deep  plowing.  There  are  other  soils 
that  need  to  be  kept  religiously  "right  side  up."  There 
are  thin  soils  with  an  inch  or  two  of  top  stuff  brown  with 
slowly  accumulated  humus  and  beneath  very  dense,  cold, 
poor  clay.  Suddenly  to  turn  such  land  over  to  a  depth 
of  12"  or  more  would  be  to  court  defeat  unless  one  had 
a  considerable  quantity  of  manure  that  one  could  apply. 
In  event  one  has  the  manure  and  will  mix  it  in  well, 
probably  the  deep  plowing  of  this  hard  poor  clay  would 
be  useful,  and  might  result  in  much  better  grass  than 
would  come  with  shallow  plowing  or  mere  disking;  but 
to  turn  suddenly  that  dense  subsoil  to  the  surface  and 
attempt  to  make  in  it  a  seedbed  for  a  tiny  grass  plant, 
would  be  to  court  disaster.  There  are  soils,  however, 
so  deep,  with  subsoil  immediately  under  them  well  filled 
with  carbonate  of  lime,  that  the  deeper  they  are  plowed 
within  reason  the  better  the  results  will  be.  On  such 
soils  we  are  plowing  14"  deep,  and  more  when  laying 
down  to  alfalfa,  and  we  would  not  hesitate  to  do  the 
same  in  laying  the  land  down  to  grasses.  As  a  rule, 
however,  with  many  exceptions,  when  making  a  seedbed 
for  grasses,  keep  the  soil  as  near  right  side  up  as  you  can 
and  try  to  have  in  the  upper  surface  as  much  decaying 
vegetable  matter  as  you  can  get.  Imitate  the  natural 
sod  which  is  a  mass  of  decaying  stems,  leaves  and  roots. 

However  deep  the  land  may  be  plowed,  here  is  a  rule 
that  should  be  inviolable :  plow  early.  If  the  seeding  is 
to  be  done  in  the  fall,  plow  if  possible  in  midsummer. 


282  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

The  land  must  settle  together  again,  so  that  the  capillaries 
will  be  established  and  moisture  can  come  up  from  be- 
neath. The  land  must  not  only  be  plowed  early,  but  it 
must  be  frequently  harrowed  afterward,  and  the  first 
harrowing  should  be  within  three  hours  of  the  plowing. 
To  accomplish  this  one  may  plow  till  10  o'clock  in  the 
forenoon,  harrow  the  fresh-plowed  land  till  noon  and 
repeat  the  operation  at  4  o'clock  on  what  is  plowed  after 
dinner.  By  this  means  good  pulverization  is  secured  and 
moisture  conserved.  To  further  moisture  conservation 
one  should  harrow  with  a  steel  drag  harrow  (or  any 
other  sort  may  serve)  soon  after  each  rainfall,  as  the 
land  will  work  nicely  without  packing.  The  land  should 
be  carefully  dragged  till  it  is  level  and  smooth. 

Top-dress  With  Manure  Before  Seeding. — If  the  field 
can  have  a  top-dressing  of  fine  manure,  harrowed  in  and 
mixed  all  through  the  surface  soil,  it  will  assure  a  fine 
catch  and  rapid  growth.  Manure  turned  under  will  not 
soon  benefit  the  young  plants. 

Application  of  Lime. — When  liming  is  needed  the 
work  may  be  done  either  before  or  after  plowing.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  may  be  stirred  into  the  soil  with  -the  har- 
row and  if  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  manure  no  espe- 
cial loss  will  occur.  Caustic  lime  should  not  touch  ma- 
nure, and  it  should  be  well  mixed  through  the  soil  before 
the  manure  is  applied. 

Time  to  Seed  Grasses. — Nature  ripens  grass  seeds  in 
the  summer;  they  fall  to  earth  and  lie  dormant  till  rains 
of  fall  cause  them  to  spring  into  growth.  Commonly 
the  fall  is  the  best  time  to  sow  grass  seeds.  If  one  be- 
gins one's  work  of  preparing  a  seed  bed  in  late  summer, 


SELECTING  SEED  MIXTURES  283 

one  can  make  a  seed  bed  fine  and  fit  by  September.  One 
should  not  sow  the  seed  until  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
full  of  moisture  so  that  if  the  seeds  germinate  they  will 
not  perish  for  lack  of  support.  Time  of  seeding  varies 
with  location  and  with  season.  In  the  fall  one  can  sow 
grass  seeds  from  August  till*  November,  with  the  best 
chances  of  success  probably  about  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember. In  the  spring  one  can  hardly  sow  the  seed  too 
early;  certainly  as  soon  as  one  can  get  a  seed  bed  one 
must  put  in  the  seed,  and  in  spring  seeding  one  can  not 
and  need  not  delay  so  long  to  perfect  a  seed  bed  as  in 
the  fall. 

The  Mixture  to  Select. — Many  grass  mixtures  com- 
pounded by  seedsmen  are  silly  agglomerations,  with  the 
bulk  made  up  of  good  varieties  and. many  poorer  ones 
added  literally  to  throw  chaff  into  the  eye  of  the  cus- 
tomer. There  is  not  a  long  list  of  good  grasses  adapted 
to  any  soil.  For  example,  if  one  has  a  soil  adapted  to 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  and  wishes  to  grow  that  grass,  one 
has  no  use  for  Canada  bluegrass,  redtop  or  a  lot  of 
other  grasses  listed  in  seedsmen's  catalogues.  Mix  with 
bluegrass  meadow  fescue,  brome  grass  and  timothy,  the 
latter  to  come  on  soon  and  afford  temporary  pasture,  and 
the  others  because  all  three  are  good  grasses  liked  by  ani- 
mals. One  is  unwise  to  sow  orchard  grass  where  one 
desires  bluegrass,  because  it  is  stronger  and  coarser,  and 
is  not  eaten  by  animals  that  can  get  bluegrass.  For  a 
poor  soil  deficient  in  lime,  use  redtop,  Canada  bluegrass 
and  orchard  grass.  For  mowing,  in  soil  deficient  in  lime 
and  fertility,  sow  orchard  grass,  tall  oatgrass  and  redtop. 
For  good  soil  with  sufficient  moisture,  sow  a  mowing 


284  MEADOWS    AND   PASTURES 

grass,  as  timothy.  A  second  choice  for  good  soil  and 
plenty  of  moisture  is  timothy.  For  wet  soil  and  lime- 
deficient  but  yet  fairly  good,  sow  timothy  and  redtop. 
For  pasture  or  meadow  in  the  Northwest,  sow  brome 
grass  and  meadow  fescue.^  For  pasture  and  meadow  in 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  sow  timothy,  brome  grass  and 
meadow  fescue.  For  winter  pasture  or  temporary  lawn 
in  the  South,  sow  Italian  rye  grass,  and  so  on  through 
the  list.  The  reader,  after  studying  the  chapters  de- 
scribing the  various  grasses,  will  have  little  difficulty  in 
making  out  his  own  mixture  or  choosing  a  single  grass 
to  sow  alone. 

Mixtures  vs.  One  Grass. — Hunt  says  that  no  mixture 
will  afford  more  forage  than  will  a  single  grass  sown 
alone,  if  it  is  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate.  While 
there  is  doubtless  exaggerated  expectation  of  the  effi- 
ciency of  mixtures,  I  must  say  I  have  seen  evidence  that 
mixtures  for  pastures  are  good  in  their  way.  The  evil 
of  a  mixture  is  that  sometime  there  is  in  it  a  grass  of 
inferior  quality ;  that  one  will  be  neglected  and  the  others 
grazed,  so  that  after  a  time  the  inferior  grass  is  left 
in  the  ascendency.  Thus  it  is  folly  to  mix  brome  grass 
with  orchard  grass  or  bluegrass  with  orchard  grass,  since 
animals  commonly  leave  orchard  grass  untouched  when 
they  can  gnaw  the  more  delicate  grasses,  and  yet  orchard 
grass  is  nutritious  and  palatable  and  eaten  wrell  when 
growing  alone.  When  one  is  not  sure  of  one's  soil  one 
may  find  that  in  the  "shotgun  mixtures"  of  many  seeds 
one  will  find  some  that  will  be  especially  well  adapted, 
and  thus  achieve  better  results  than  if  one  seeded  at  a 
venture  one  grass  alone.  For  hay  one  must  bear  in  mind 


QUANTITY  OF  SEED  PER  ACRE  285 

that  nothing  sells  so  well  as  timothy  and  any  admixture 
decreases  the  price  obtainable. 

Amount  of  Seed  to  the  Acre. — Grass  seeds  are  com- 
monly very  minute.  Thus  of  bluegrass  there  are  2,400,- 
ooo  seeds  to  the  pound,  of  redtop  6,000,000  and  of  tim- 
othy 1,700,000.  If,  then,  one  pound  of  bluegrass  seed 
could  be  evenly  distributed  over  an  acre,  it  would  place 
about  55  seeds  to  the  square  foot,  a  number  ample  to 
give  a  good  stand  of  grass.  However,  it  is  nearly  im- 
possible to  get  a  perfect  distribution  of  seeds,  and  quite 
impossible  to  get  them  covered  evenly,  so  that  one  can 
not  count  on  more  than  a  very  small  percentage  of  ger- 
mination. There  is  the  further  fact  that  when  the  little 
seedling  grass  plant  comes  to  light  it  is  very  weak  and 
small,,  and  alone  is  pretty  sure  to  perish.  Literally,  in 
union  there  is  strength.  I  have  sown  grass  seeds  in  the 
fall  and  later  seen  perfect  stands  where  the  seed  was 
sown  "too  thick,"  and  very  poor  stands  indeed  where  it 
was  sown  "just  right,"  as  we  had  believed  at  seeding 
time,  all  the  other  care  alike.  With  the  smaller  seeds 
then  of  the  bluegrasses,  redtop,  and  others  of  that  nature, 
the  thicker  the  seeding  the  better  the  hopes.  I  should 
not  hesitate  with  these  seeds  to  put  on  20  to  30  pounds 
to  the  acre,  no  matter  if  it  does  seem  too  liberal  a  seed- 
ing. Of  timothy,  orchard  grass,  brome  grass,  and  seeds 
of  like  size,  one  can  sow  much  less  seed  and  get  good 
stands.  I  found  by  experiment  that  timothy  sown  very 
thick  gave  a  very  reduced  yield,  and  Hunt  found  that 
because  of  timothy's  strong  stooling  habit  a  single  plant 
had  given  125  pounds  of  well  cured  hay.  Only  3,200 
plants  such  as  that  would  be  required  on  one  acre  to 


286  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

give  a  yield  of  2  tons  of  hay,  or  one  plant  to  about  each 
14  square  feet.  When  9  pounds  of  timothy  are  sown 
on  one  acre  over  200  seeds  are  left  on  each  square  foot. 
When  sown  alone  10  to  15  pounds  to  the  acre  are  com- 
monly sown,  and  if  clover  is  to  be  sown  with  it  8  to  10 
pounds,  and  in  the  spring  as  much  red  clover  or  clover 
mixtures.  Commonly  it  is  wise  to  err  on  the  side  of 
too  much  seed,  timothy  on  rich  soil  seeming  the  excep- 
tion that  goes  to  prove  the  rule. 

Aiding  Young  Grass  Seedlings. — Anything  that  will 
keep  the  earth  moist  and  shaded  while  young  grasses  are 
getting  started  will  be  a  real  help.  To  distribute  chaff 
or  light  manure  over  the  field  would  aid.  Chaff  from 
the  mangers  or  feeding  floor  will  often  result  in  a  stand 
of  grass,  when  sowing  pure  seed  would  fail  simply  be- 
cause the  chaff  would  keep  the  earth  from  too  rapid  dry- 
ing out.  Further,  to  make  the  surface  quite  firm  and 
almost  hard  after  the  seed  was  sown  wrould  be  a  distinct 
gain  since  it  would  tend  to  hold  the  moisture  near  the 
surface. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — In  my  father's  time  men  sowed  all 
seeds  by  hand,  but  that  day  is  gone,  and  the  men  who 
could  thus  evenly  distribute  seed  are  dead.  The  best  ve- 
hicles for  sowing  grass  seeds  are  the  fiddlebow  seeder, 
the  Cahoon  seeder  (these  with  winged  discs  that  throw 
the  seed  far  on  either  side,  the  man  walking  and  turn- 
ing the  machine  by  hand)  and  the  wheelbarrow  seeder. 
The  latter  tool  is  possibly  the  better,  assuredly  the  most 
accurate,  though  one  can  with  care  give  good  distribution 
with  either  of  the  machines.  There  are  drills  made 
for  drilling  in  clover  and  alfalfa  seeds;  these  work  well 


COVER  GRASS  SEEDS  287 

and  save  much  seed,  besides  giving  better  stands  than 
are  commonly  secured.  These  drills  will  also  seed  blue- 
grass  and  timothy  quite  well,  though  to  do  so  the  land 
should  be  very  fine  and  smooth.  An  efficient  leveler  to 
precede  a  grass  or  clover  seeding  drill  is  made  by  taking 
two  pieces  of  2"x6"  stuff  8'  long,  setting  these  on  edge 
like  the  runners  of  a  sled,  spacing  them  to  be  parallel 
and  6'  or  8'  apart.  Between  these,  connecting  them  at 
right  angles,  place  4  cross  pieces  of  the  same  dimension 
stuff,  each  piece  set  on  edge  at  the  same  level.  This  is 
drawn  by  a  rather  long  hitch  so  that  it  drags  earth  with 
each  of  the  4  cross  pieces  (five  may  be  provided)  and 
each  one  deposits  something  in  a  low  place  and  aids  in 
scraping  off  the  high  places.  A  little  weight  may  or 
may  not  be  needed  to  make  this  leveler  operate  well,  de- 
pending on  the  looseness  of  the  soil.  It  pays  well  hi 
sowing  grass  and  clover  seeds  to  have  the  land  fine,  firm 
and  smooth. 

Covering  the  Seed. — The  lightest  covering  must  be 
given  to  very  small  seeds  such  as  bluegrass;  other 
stronger  seeds,  such  as  timothy  and  brome  grass,  may 
be  covered  half  an  inch  or  more  deep  and  yet  find  their 
way  through.  Ordinarily,  if  the  seed  is  sown  alone,  a 
bush  harrow  may  be  used  to  good  advantage,  or  a  plank 
drag  will  rub  the  seed  sufficiently  into  the  earth.  If 
the  seed  is  sown  with  a  nurse-crop  it  may  be  sown  in 
front  or  behind  the  drill;  if  in  front,  some  of  it  will  be 
lost  but  commonly  enough  will  be  covered  to  a  proper 
depth  to  give  a  stand. 

Seeding  zvith  a  Nurse-Crop. — In  sowing  grass  seed  in 
the  fall  it  is  the  almost  universal  custom  to  use  a  nurse- 


288  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

crop,  commonly  of  wheat,  winter  barley  or  rye.  The 
use  of  a  nurse-crop  is  often  an  advantage,  since  it  les- 
sens the  danger  of  the  little  seedlings  being  lifted  out 
by  the  frost  or  buried  by  repeated  thawings  and  freez- 
ings. Timothy  sown  alone  on  a  good  seedbed,  well  en- 
riched, will  come  along  better  alone  and  make  a  fair 
crop  of  hay  the  next  season.  If  sown  with  wheat  it  may 
be  so  far  advanced  as  to  struggle  with  the  wheat  for 
supremacy,  so  it  is  common  in  some  sections  to  sow  the 
timothy  10  days  after  the  wheat  to  hold  it  in  check.  It 
is  always  better  for  the  grasses  if  the  nurse-crop  is 
mown  off  early  for  hay,  as  sometimes  when  it  is  per- 
mitted to  ripen  grain  it  has  so  shaded  the  land  and 
drained  it  of  its  moisture  that  the  little  seedling  grasses 
are  lost. 

'  Seeding  Clovers  in  the  Spring. — Where  grasses  have 
been  sown  in  the  fall  the  clovers  are  commonly  best 
added  in  the  spring.  Fall-sown  clovers  need  early  sow- 
ing in  northern  climes,  though  in  the  South  they  are  best 
and  may  be  sown  as  late  as  November  in  the  Gulf  States. 
Commonly  in  the  regions  where  grass  is  grown  clovers 
are  added  in  spring.  There  are  several  methods  of  doing 
this.  The  easiest  and  perhaps  most  common  is  to  sow  on 
frozen  ground  at  a  time  when  the  frost  has  honey- 
combed the  land.  This  lets  the  seed  sink  down  and 
become  more  or  less  covered.  Others  sow  as  early  as 
February  and  trust  to  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  win- 
ter to  bury  the  seed.  Yet  others  sow  half  their  seed 
over  the  ground  early  and  the  remaining  half  after 
growth  starts  in  the  spring.  It  has  been  my  experience 
that  each  way  will  succeed  if  the  soil  is  right,  though 


HARROWING    BEFORE    SEEDING  289 

there  is  always  uncertainty  more  or  less  great  in  clover 
seeding  on  unprepared  land.  When  one  can  do  so  with- 
out disturbing  the  grasses  too  much  one  should  wait 
till  the  land  is  dry  enough  to  work  in  April  or  late  March, 
then  harrow  lightly  and  so\v  the  clovers,  perhaps  harrow- 
ing again  to  cover  the  seed.  With  proper  care  this  may 
be  done  with  no  resulting  injury  to  the  previous  seeding, 
or  so  little  injury  that  the  good  of  having  a  sure  stand 
of  clovers  much  more  than  offsets  it.  One  will  need 
here  to  be  in  the  field  in  person  since  one  can  not  trust 
the  harrowing  of  young  grasses  to  ignorant  and  heedless 
laborers.  It  is  common  to  use  10  pounds  of  clover  seed 
which. may  be  of  purely  red  clover,  or  a  mixture  of  red 
and  other  clovers.  Always  where  there  is  suspicion  that 
alfalfa  may  succeed  one  should  sow  in  the  mixture 
enough  alfalfa  seed  to  give  a  thin  scattering  of  plants 
over  the  field,  in  order  to  inoculate  the  field  and  to  show 
the  condition  of  the  soil  in  respect  to  swreetness,  drain- 
age and  fertility,  since  there  is  no  such  soil  barometer 
as  the  alfalfa  plant.  I  have  had  fine  success  with  a  mix- 
ture of  6  pounds  of  red  clover,  3  pounds  of  alsike  and 
I  pound  of  alfalfa,  though  this  mixture  may  put  too 
much  alsike  into  the  meadow,  and  the  use  of  2  pounds 
of  the  latter  and  7  pounds  of  red  clover,  with  i  pound 
of  alfalfa,  may  give  a  better  result,  this  depending  cer- 
tainly on  the  nature  of  the  land.  If  one  desires,  one 
can  sow  more  alfalfa,  but  the  small  amount  indicated 
will  be  enough  to  give  a  scattering  stand  for  purposes 
of  observation  and  inoculation.  Sweet  clover  may  be 
introduced  into  the  mixture  if  the  field  is  to  be  mown; 
animals  do  not  graze  this  clover  well  when  they  may 


290  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

get  other  grasses  and  clovers.    If  for  pasture  always  add 
2  to  4  pounds  of  white  clover. 

Seeding  Grasses  in  the  Spring. — If  all  the  seeds  are 
to  be  sown  in  the  spring  one  should  have  the  land  plowed 
early  as  possible  so  that  it  may  be  well  settled  together. 
Much  grass  seed  is  lost  because  of  too  loose  a  seedbed 
in  spring.  Give  all  the  harrowing  that  you  can  and 
work  the  land  down  to  a  thorough  seedbed,  yet  hasten 
the  work  so  as  to  get  the  seeding  done  as  early  as  there 
is  growing  weather.  Along  the  4Oth  parallel  I  like  to 
sow  grass  seeds  the  first  week  in  April;  during  some 
years  March  will  be  a  better  time,  ,and  farther  south 
the  work  may  be  best  done  still  earlier.  I  do  not  think 
that  in  spring  the  chances  are  very  good  of  getting  a 
stand  of  grasses  having  small  seeds,  such  as  bluegrass, 
unless  one  seeds  quite  early  and  on  a  good,  fine,  firm 
seedbed.  Here  again  it  is  true  that  the  more  seed  used 
the  better  the  chance  of  success,  since  by  their  very  mul- 
tiplicity the  seedlings  protect  one  another.  Here  again 
comes  in  the  helpful  nurse-crop. 

Nurse-Crops  in  Spring. — I  advise  always  the  use  of 
a  nurse-crop;  that  is,  if  the  farmer  can  use  one  with 
judgment  and  discretion ;  if  he  cares  only  for  the  nurse- 
crop  he  had  better  seed  the  grasses  alone.  If  he  will  sow 
one  bushel  to  the  acre  of  spring  barley,  preferably  a 
short-strawed,  strong  variety  that  will  not  lodge,  or  3 
pecks  of  oats,  if  he  will  remorselessly  cut  the  nurse-crop 
off  for  hay  when  in  bloom,  it  will  do  good  and  no  harm. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  seeks  to  get  a  maximum  crop 
of  grain  and  a  seeding  of  young  grasses  at  the  same 
spring  sowing,  he  will  very  often  get  the  grain  and  a 


A  STAND  OF  GRASS  291 

very  unsatisfactory  and  uneven  stand  of  grass.  The  thin 
seeding  of  a  nurse-crop  is  a  distinct  help  if  it  is  taken 
away  before  it  has  exhausted  the  soil  of  moisture;  if 
it  is  allowed  to  stand  till  the  grain  is  ripened  many  of 
the  young  grass  plants  will  have  died. 

A  Sure  Way  to  Get  a  Grass  Stand. — In  order  to  get 
a  stand  of  these  young  grasses  one  must  have  the  land 
firm,  the  shading  weeds  destroyed  and  the  sun  let  in  but 
not  too  strongly.  The  best  success  that  I  have  ever  had 
in  seeding  has  been  to  sow  early  in  spring  with  a  nurse- 
crop  of  barley  or  oats,  and  as  soon  as  the  grasses  and 
clovers  and  grain  were  well  started  turning  in  a  flock  of 
sheep  and  letting  them  graze  it  all  down,  but  not  close. 
As  soon  as  it  is  well  grazed  down,  which  should  be  within 
a  few  days,  the  sheep  are  taken  out  and  all  allowed  to 
start  growth  again.  The  sheep  are  turned  in  the  sec- 
ond, and  later  the  third,  time,  judgment  being  used  to 
see  that  they  do  not  gnaw  the  young  clovers  too.  I  have 
had  no  such  stands  in  any  other  system  of  management 
as  I  have  secured  in  this  way.  The  little  feet  of  the  sheep 
seem  to  firm  the  land  just  right  without  overdoing  it. 
The  nibbling  down  of  the  oats  or  barley,  the  nipping  off 
of  the  weeds,  all  seem  to  favor  the  young  and  spring- 
ing grasses  and  clovers.  After  the  nurse-crop  has  been 
disposed  of  finally  in  this  manner,  the  sheep  should  be 
taken  out  for  some  months  to  let  the  young  seeding  get 
a  brave  start. 

Use  of  a  Roller. — The  roller  is  an  almost  indispensable 
implement  in  getting  a  good  stand  of  grass  in  the  spring. 
The  land  must  be  made  firm  for  little  seedlings.  Sev- 
eral types  of  rollers  are  in  use.  In  general  we  may  say 


292  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

that  a  roller  may  easily  be  too  heavy,  especially  in  a  moist 
season;  that  if  the  earth  is  moist  the  roller  should  not  be 
used  until  it  has  dried  somewhat,  so  that  no  packing  or 
crusting  will  occur,  and  that  it  is  often  advantageous 
to  roll  the  new  seeding  weeks  or  even  months  after  sow- 
ing, should  the  land  get  dry  and  there  be  danger  that 
the  loose  seedbed  may  dry  out  before  the  rootlets  of 
the  small  grasses  and  clovers  can  reach  permanent  mois- 
ture below.  I  have  often  taken  out  a  very  heavy  roller 
in  midsummer  and  pressed  down  hard  the  young 
meadow,  with  excellent  results.  For  such  use  a  roller 
of  concrete  is  very  useful ;  it  may  be  made  to  weigh  a 
ton  or  more,  and  for  use  in  dry  weather  the  heavier  it 
is,  within  reason,  the  better.  The  heavy  roller  is  useful 
also  as  a  pusher-in  of  small  stones  and  sticks  that  might 
hurt  the  mower.  One  should  own  two  rollers ;  one  may 
be  light  for  use  in  the  spring  and  the  other  to  use  on 
old  meadows  or  pastures  much  heavier. 

Corrugated  Rollers. — Rollers  are  made  with  corru- 
gations having  a  rather  sharp  V-shaped  edge.  These 
are  admirable  for  new  seedings.  The  seeds  pressed  in 
by  use  of  this  rojler  are  sure  to  be  in  part  in  moist,  fit 
•soil  and  the  resultant  stand  is  apt  to  be  very  good.  This 
roller  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  use  on  old-established 
meadows  unless  one  is  desirous  of  pushing  in  some  fresh 
seed. 

After-Care  of  Young  Grasses  and  Clovers. — And 
when  one  has  a  stand,  what?  Consider  that  the  young 
things  are  infants,  and  be  gentle.  If  the  land  must  be 
grazed  take  out  the  animals  in  wet  weather.  It  takes 
time  to  establish  a  tough  sod  that  will  bear  up  the  ani- 


METHODS  OF   MANAGEMENT  293 

trials'  feet.  It  is  really  better  oftentimes  to  mow  the 
new  field  for  a  year  before  animals  are  turned  in.  Weeds 
do  great  harm;  mow  them  off  or  pull  them.  Watch  to 
see  that  the  clovers  do  not  smother  out  the  young 
grasses;  cut  them  off  before  they  can  do  this  if  danger 
there  is.  Commonly  clovers  do  not  smother,  and  alfalfa 
least  of  all,  since  it  grows  straight,  and  lodges  less  than 
red  clover.  Watch  to  see  where  feeding  is  needed  and 
make  mental  note  of  these  places,  so  that  the  manure 
spreader  may  go  over  them  in  the  winter,  lightly  dis- 
tributing stable  manure,  or  if  the  grasses  need  immedi- 
ate strengthening  one  may  give  them  a  dressing  of  100 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  about  300  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  per  acre,  distributing  these  on  the  surface 
where  rains  will  soon  make  their  presence  felt.  Weeds, 
nurse-crop, '  a  too  loose  seedbed,  and  starvation — these 
are  the  dangers  to  new  seedings. 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOWS 
AND  PASTURES. 

Some  grasses  seem  benefited  by  hard  grazing  and  much 
tramping.  Bluegrass  is  one  of  these ;  if  the  land  is  loose 
the  grass  does  not  thrive  as  it  will  if  it  is  packed  by  the 
feet  of  stock.  There  are  other  grasses  that  are  much 
hurt  by  being  tread  upon ;  among  these  is  timothy.  Yet 
while  bluegrass  is  the  better  for  being  tramped  and 
grazed  rather  hard,  it  is  wise  management  that  takes  off 
animals  in  wet  weather  of  early  spring,  when  the  ani- 
mals' feet  poach  hard  the  land  and  tramp  it  into  cud. 
Such  tramping  is  injurious, 


294  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Feeding  on  Pastures. — The  thing  most  helpful  to  a 
pasture  is  to  feed  animals  on  it  some  rich  feed,  as  cot- 
tonseed-meal, alfalfa  hay,  or,  in  fact,  any  ration  that 
makes  the  animals  thrive,  though  feeds  rich  in  nitrogen 
add  most  to  the  value  of  the  grass.  English  farmers 
know  this  well  and  buy  our  linseed  meal  or  cake,  and 
cottonseed  cake  as  well,  which  they  feed  to  bullocks  and 
sheep  on  grass.  They  feed,  also,  our  corn,  but  say  that 
they  do  not  see  so  much  benefit  to  the  land  where  corn 
has  been  fed  as  where  cake  has  been  fed,  and  this  is  but 
natural,  since  the  cake  is  rich  in  nitrogen  (derived  from 
the  protein  of  these  feeds),  while  corn  is  rather  deficient 
in  protein.  Assuredly  feeding  on  pasture  is  the  best 
method  of  making  it  good,  and  commonly  profit  is  de- 
rived from  the  feeding  operations  as  well.  There  is  need 
of  care  that  the  feed  troughs  do  not  always  remain  in 
one  spot  and  that  the  animals  do  not  destroy  the  grasses 
by  tramping  it  into  mud  during  the  wet  time  of  the  year. 
It  is  all  too  common  in  America  to  place  feed  troughs  in 
the  pasture  or  feedlots  and  leave  them  in  one  spot  for 
years.  Thus  there  is  wasted,  and  much  more  than 
wasted,  a  great  deal  of  manure,  the  net  result  of  which 
for  years  will  be  the  rank-growing  jimpson  weed  and 
dog  fennel.  Feed  troughs  and  racks  should  always  be 
on  runners  so  that  horses  can  quickly  move  them  from 
one  spot  to  another  and  thus  have  the  manure  well  dis- 
tributed over  the  pasture.  The  yield  of  grass  may  in 
this  manner  be  very  much  more  than  doubled,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  there  is  any  better  way  of  recovering 
the  fertility  deposited  by  the  cattle  than  by  a  wise  man- 
agement of  pasture  grasses  to  take  it  up. 


A  WAY   TO   FEED   PASTURES 


295 


296  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Effect  of  Manure  on  Permanent  Pasture. — I  have 
found  nowhere  any  greater  profit  from  the  use  of  com- 
mon farm  manures  than  on  old  pastures,  principally  blue- 
grass.  Commonly  men  do  not  have  any  means  of  know- 
ing just  what  good  they  get  from  manure  on  pasture.  In 
our  lawn,  which  is  newly  taken  in  from  an  old  bluegrass 
pasture,  I  applied  in  the  winter  of  1908  manure  to  one 
square  rod  of  grass,  giving  it  only  a  fairly  liberal  dress- 
ing, maybe  at  the  rate  of  10  tons  to  the  acre.  In  1909  I 
harvested  the  square  rod  with  the  scythe,  and  it  yielded 
more  than  125  pounds;  in  truth,  the  actual  weight  was 
155  pounds,  but  as  it  was  weighed  a  little  clamp  I  called 
it  125 — much  too  little  I  feel;  while  the  unmanured  rod 
right  alongside  made  a  yield  of  55  pounds,  which  I 
guessed  at  40  pounds,  allowing  for  the  moisture  of  dew. 
These  weights  were  at  the  rate  of  3  1-5  tons  and  10  tons 
to  the  acre.  Thus  the  manure  had  made  an  increase  per 
acre  of  6  4-5  tons  or  about  a  ton  of  forage  for  a  ton  of 
manure.  This  was  cut  in  May,  so  that  there  was  nearly 
as  much  more  growth  during  the  summer  and  fall,  which 
illustrates  just  how  profitable  bluegrass  pasture  may  be. 
Ten  tons  of  silage  corn  is  considered  a  fair  yield  of  for- 
age. Is  not  10  tons  of  green  grass  eaten  off  by  good  ani- 
mals fully  as  likely  to  give  profit?  Consider,  too,  that  to 
grow  the  acre  of  silage  corn  will  cost  at  least  $5  and  to 
grow  the  acre  of  bluegrass  mixed  with  white  clover  has 
cost  only  the  manuring,  which  would  be  even  more  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  the  corn  than  in  the  case  of  grass. 
While  the  unmanured  bluegrass,  producing  about  3  tons 
of  green  forage  to  the  acre,  might  show  a  small  profit, 
yet  the  point  is  to  know  how  yields  may  be  increased. 


PHOSPHORUS  FOR  PASTURES  297 

Mineral  Manures  on  Pastures. — Lime  is  the  bedrock  of 
good  grass  pasture.  After  lime,  comes  the  need  of  phos- 
phorus and  potassium.  Most  soils  in  the  United  States 
have  in  them  now  a  good  supply  of  potassium.  The  ex- 
ceptional soils  are  those  derived  from  peat  and  sandy 
lands.  Peaty  soils  may  be  so  deficient  in  potassium, 
though  not  all  of  them  are,  that  the  grasses  growing  on 
them  will  have  little  value.  Sandy  soils  are  more  often 
in  need  of  potassium,  but  on  such  soils  pastures  are,  as 
yet,  rarely  established.  Phosphorus  is  the  substance 
more  commonly  needed  in  soils;  in  fact,  there  are  few 
soils  in  the  world  that  are  as  rich  in  this  element  as  would 
be  best  for  plants.  The  one  region  that  I  call  to  mind 
now  that  is  not  benefited  by  use  of  more  phosphorus 
than  is  native  to  the  soil  is  the  bluegrass  region  of  Ken- 
tucky. There  are  parts  of  this  region  that  show  about 
5  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  in  its  subsoil,  and  many 
small  nodules  of  phosphatic  rock  are  scattered  through 
the  earth  within  easy  reach  of  plant  roots.  I  have  tested 
several  forms  of  phosphorus  on  permanent  pasture  in 
Ohio,  but  unfortunately  have  no  figures  showing  re- 
sults. Apparently  the  best  results  were  secured  by  a 
very  liberal  use  of  floats  or  finely-ground  phosphatic 
rock  distributed  right  over  the  thick  sod  of  an  old  pas- 
ture. Of  this  substance  nearly  a  ton  to  the  acre  was 
used  (it  costs  about  $8  per  ton  in  large  lots)  and  it  is 
plain  to  see  that  the  result  has  been  a  doubling  of  the 
grass  and  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  clovers  in 
it,  beside  a  distinct  difference  in  color  of  the  herbage. 
I  applied  also  a  sprinkling  of  stable  manure,  which  com- 
plicates the  situation,  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  I  will 


298  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

recover  much  more  than  the  cost  of  this  phosphorus 
and  that  it  will  continue  to  return  good  results  for  many 
years.  There  is  no  fear  of  the  phosphorus  or  floats  being 
washed  out  of  the  soil ;  it  becomes  slowly  available  when 
in  combination  with  decaying  vegetable  matter  or  in 
acid  soil  and  is  steadily  buried  in  the  land  as  earth- 
worms bring  up  their  casts  and  rains  wash  the  floats 
down. 

Bonemeal  will  do  wonders  to  grass,  as  I  have  often 
seen,  commonly  where  applied  to  lawns,  but  I  regret 
that  I  have  no  figures  of  American  practice  showing  the 
cost  and  results.  Nor,  though  we  have  used  it,  have  I 
any  accurate  data  as  to  the  result  of  acid  phosphate  on 
pasture  land.  I  have,  however,  found  it  to  increase  the 
yield  of  alfalfa  applied  on  meadows  that  were  failing. 
There  are  now  experiments  being  conducted  in  Missouri, 
Ohio,  Virginia,  and  I  hope  other  states,  to  determine  the 
best  use  and  profit  resulting  from  the  use  of  many  sub- 
stances on  grass  land,  though  as  yet  but  meager  results 
have  become  available. 

Animals  Graze  Manured  Grass  Better. — "I  do  not  ob- 
ject," remarked  Josh  Billings,  "that  folks  know  so  much, 
but  I  do  object  that  they  know  so  many  things  that  are 
not  so."  It  is  indeed  annoying  to  learn  how  many  of 
the  common  opinions  held  by  mankind  are  erroneous,  even 
when  they  are  on  such  easily  observable  phenomena  as 
pertain  to  farms.  Nearly  all  farmers  believe  that  manure 
put  on  pasture  makes  the  grass  coarse,  rank  and  dis- 
tasteful to  animals.  The  reverse  is  true;  manure  on  pas- 
ture makes  the  grass  more  appetizing  and  nutritious. 
This  is  true  as  to  sheep  and  cows,  and  to  an  extent  as  to 


EXCESS  OF  MANURE  ON  GRASS  299 

horses.  I  have  daily  opportunity  to  witness  how  eagerly 
the  cows  and  sheep  nibble  certain  strips  in  a  pasture 
nearby,  where  manure  is  thinly  spread  each  year  and 
where  the  grass  grows  thick  and  green.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions to  this  truth,  however,  and  things  well  worth 
bearing  in  mind. 

Excessive  Horse  Manure  on  Pastures. — It  seems 
proved  that  it  is  dangerous  to  put  large  amounts  of  city 
manure  on  horse  pastures,  for  though  it  may  make  a 
great  growth  of  grass  the  grass  seems  sometimes  to 
cause  disease  among  the  horses  grazing  it.  In  Virginia 
where  men  have  bought  farms  and  turned  them  into 
grazing  land  they  have  sometimes  sought  a  quick  short 
cut  to  good  grass  by  the  use  of  large  amounts  of  manure 
shipped  from  cities.  This  manure  would  be  nearly  all 
made  by  horses.  While  the  result  in  growth  was  very 
satisfactory,  yet  there  developed  quite  frequently  the 
disease  called  "pighead."  Henry  Fairfax,  a  very  care- 
ful observer,  related  these  facts  to  me,  and  further  stated 
that  he  had  cured  a  number  of  cases  by  simply  taking 
them  away  from  the  excessively  rich  manured  pastures 
and  putting  them  on  his  own  grass  where  little  or  no 
manure  had  ever  been  applied.  I  have  observed  that 
horses  very  unwillingly  graze  over  or  near  their  own 
droppings,  nature  seeming  by  instinct  to  direct  them 
where  it  is  safe  and  healthful  to  graze  and  away  from 
the  unsafe.  Sheep  and  cattle  graze  readily  on  the  spots 
neglected  by  horses. 

Mixed  Stocking  of  Pastures. — For  many  reasons  it  is 
wise  to  graze  pastures  either  with  a  mixed  company  of 
cattle,  horses  and  sheep,  or  else  to  alternate  them,  using 


300  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

say  the  sheep  first,  following  with  cattle  and  later  by 
horses,  though  the  order  of  rotation  is  not  so  very  essen- 
tial. The  first  animals  turned  to  the  grass  will  take  the 
cream  from  it.  If  the  three  classes  of  animals  graze 
together  there  will  be  few  weeds  left  uneaten  and  the 
grass  will  be  cut  down  pretty  evenly  all  over. 

Do  not  put  Sheep  Manure  on  Sheep  Pastures. — While 
all  animals  harbor  parasites,  sheep  are  more  in  danger 
from  these  scourges  than  other  animals.  There  are 
various  parasites  that  may  develop  in  the  grass,  chief 
among  them  being  the  stomach  worm,  though  tapeworms 
and  the  worm  causing  nodular  disease  cause  much  trouble 
and  loss.  These  parasites  all  come  from  germs  that  pass 
out  in  the  excrements  and  develop  in  the  young  spring- 
ing grass.  It  is  clear  that  grave  danger  to  the  flock 
lurks  in  any  land  manured  with  sheep  manure  and  carry- 
ing grass.  There  is  of  course  no  danger  that  sheep 
parasites  would  attack  horses,  and  small  danger  that 
they  would  attack  cattle,  though  the  stomach  worm  seems 
to  find  a  host  in  calves  at  times  and  to  cause  considerable 
trouble.  It  is  safe  to  put  sheep  manure  where  it  will  be 
plowed  under  for  crops.  There  is  no  danger  of  infection 
from  hay  or  other  forage  mowed  from  manured  fields. 

Foreign  Experience  in  Feeding  Pastures. — In  the  Old 
World  men  have  long  practiced  the  art  of  feeding  and 
maintaining  pasture  lands.  I  was  much  interested  to  see 
that  they  not  only  fed  their  pastures,  but  they  fed  espe- 
cially certain  parts  of  them.  For  example,  Ernest  Per- 
riot  at  Nogent-le-Rotrou  in  France  showed  me  pastures 
that  were  never  fertilized,  being  subject  to  overflow  of 
the  river  Huisne,  and  other  pastures  that  were  fed  in 


ENGLISH   WAY  TO  FEED  GRASSES  301 

v 

parts  and  in  other  parts  left  unfed.  There  much  reli- 
ance was  placed  on  basic  slag,  which  seemed  to  make  the 
grass  sweeter  and  more  filled  with  clovers.  James  Peter 
in  Gloucestershire,  England,  showed  me  pastures  parts 
of  which  he  fed  and  other  parts  that  needed  no  feed- 
ing. His  practice  is  to  use  1,000  pounds  of  bonemeal 
once  in  7  years,  and  annually  a  few  hundred  pounds  of 
basic  slag.  He  also  feeds  corn  and  cake  to  good  cattle 
on  grass,,  and  the  results  are  extraordinary,  the  thickness 
and  richness  of  the  grass  being  almost  past  belief.  In 
England  it  is  a  common  sight  in  spring  to  see  manure 
distributors  going  over  the  fields  putting  on  basic  slag, 
mixed  sometimes  with  a  small  amount  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
It  is  thought,  however,  that  the  slag  should  for  best 
results  be  applied  in  the  fall.  In  Scotland  I  observed 
the  use  of  fertilizers  on  pasture,  and  the  intelligent  sys- 
tem of  study  by  which  the  land  was  divided  into  a  series 
of  small  pastures,  each  one  given  a  different  fertilization, 
and  each  lot  stocked  with  sheep,  careful  account  of  which 
was  kept  so  that  one  could  know  just  which  combina- 
tion of  fertilizers  paid  best.  This  work  is  new  to  us  in 
America,  but  it  seems  assured  that  we  shall  soon  come 
to  it  with  the  plowing  up  of  pasture  land  in  the  West, 
and  the  consequent  decrease  in  cattle  stocks  just  at  a  time 
when  meats  'are  higher  than  ever  before  within  our 
knowledge. 

Fertilisation  an  Art  of  Diversity. — It  is  no  simple 
problem  to  take  a  given  bit  of  land  and  ascertain  just 
what  sort  of  fertilization  will  best  suit  it.  The  problem 
will  require  a  separate  working  out  for  each  class  of 
soils.  Roughly,  we  may  thus  divide  our  soils  and  their 


302 

requirements :  First  the  clays,  deficient  in  limestone. 
These  soils  need  carbonate  of  lime,  and  are  benefited  by 
phosphorus  and  manures.  The^  rarely  call  for  potas- 
sium. Second,  clays  having  enough  carbonate  of  lime 
already  in  their  composition.  These  are  our  natural 
grasslands  and  are  easiest  made  to  grow  good  grasses. 
They  respond  to  applications  of  phosphorus  and  sprink- 
lings of  manures.  In  our  hot  climate  and  under  our 
burning  suns  we  use  up  humus  faster  than  they  do  in 
England,  and  so  any  sort  of  vegetable  matter  laid  over 
the  land  is  of  great  use,  even  to  feed  cornstalks  and  Jet 
them  lie  to  decay  will  help  grass  on  these  heavy  clays. 
On  these  limestone  clays  phosphorus  and  nitrogen  are 
the  deficient  elements,  but  if  the  phosphorus  is  supplied 
commonly  clovers  will  come  in,  or  may  be  invited  in, 
and  will  supply  the  nitrogen.  Here  one  could  use  basic 
slag  if  one  were  near  enough  to  the  seashore  to  get  it 
at  a  reasonable  cost,  since  even  on  these  soils  there  is 
seldom  quite  enough  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  top- 
soil.  Next  may  be  placed  sandy  soils.  These  are  helped 
by  the  use  of  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphorus,  potassium 
and  the  seeding  in  of  clovers.  Lastly  come  peaty  lands, 
of  which  we  have  less  than  are  found  in  the  Old  World ; 
these  are  vastly  helped  by  the  use  of  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus, but  they  do  not  usually  need  applications  of  nitro- 
gen, as  this  element  can  be  obtained  by  growing  legumes. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  each  man  will  have  to  feel 
his  way  in  this  work,  testing  one  substance  and  another, 
feeling  pretty  sure,  however,  that  phosphorus  will  al- 
ways help,  that  the  land  that,  is  not  benefited  by  the 
use  of  stable  manure  is  a  curiosity  in  America;  that 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  TIMOTHY  303 

drainage  is  always  a  good  thing,  and  that  carbonate  of 
lime  sweetens  grass  and  makes  clovers  thrive. 

Fertilization  of  Timothy  and  the  Crop  Following.— 
Bulletin  273  of  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  is  full  of  significant  facts  relating  to  the 
effect  of  fertilizers  of  various  sorts  and  of  farm  manures 
on  timothy  and  on  the  corn  crop  following.  Briefly, 
the  fertilizers  applied  were  nearly  all  profitable  in  in- 
creasing the  timothy  crop  alone,  and  the  corn  following 
showed  marked  results.  By  far  the  larger  residual  re- 
sults were  secured  from  the  use  of  barnyard  manure, 
10  tons  to  the  acre  producing  an  increase  of  110.3  Per 
cent  and  20  tons  producing  115.1  per  cent  increase.  The 
summary  follows : 

"This  bulletin  shows  that  both  manure  and  artificial  fertilizers 
have  a  marked  residual  effect.  On  plats  711-732,  the  average  yields 
of  the  plats  receiving  fertilizers  above  the  check  plats  show  a  gain 
of  35.8  per  cent  for  forage,  25.15  per  cent  for  stover,  and  66.65  per 
cent  for  ear  corn.  In  all  cases  the  increase  in  ear  corn  was  greater 
than  that  in  forage  or  stover.  When  a  single  fertilizer  was  used, 
potassium  increased  the  ear  corn  more  than  nitrogen  or  phosphorus. 
When  two  were  used  in  combination,  potassium  and  phosphorus 
gave  the  greatest  increase  in  forage  and  stover,  potassium  and  nitro- 
gen in  ear  corn.  The  maximum  increase  in  forage,  ear  corn  and 
stover  was  obtained  when  all  three  fertilizers  were  added.  (The 
previous  year  the  same  combination  gave  the  highest  yield  of  tim- 
othy.) The  residual  effect  of  barnyard  manure  was  greater  than 
that  of  any  combination  of  artificial  fertilizers.  Ten  tons  per  acre 
show  an  increase  of  110  per  cent  in  ear  corn  and  20  tons  per  acre 
an  increase  as  high  as  115  per  cent.  The  increase  in  stover  and 
forage,  though  not  quite  so  high  as  in  ear  corn,  was  much  greater 
than  that  of  any  combination  of  mineral  fertilizers.  The  increase 
in  yield  of  hay  in  1905-06-07  was  in  every  case  worth  more  than 
the  cost  of  fertilizers  applied,  so  that  the  increase  in  yield  of  corn 
was  clear  gain.  Figuring  on  the  current  market  prices  for  the  fer- 


304  MEADQWS    AND    PASTURES 

tilizers,  and  50  cents  per  ton  for  farm  manures,  the  use  of  20  tons 
of  farm  manure  applied  twice  to  timothy  but  not  used  for  corn, 
gave  a  gain  of  $108  per  acre  in  four  years.  Ten  tons'  of  manure 
gave  a  gain  of  $72  per  acre,  and  the  most  profitable  combination 
of  fertilizer  constituents  produced  a  gain  of  $60.85." 

Lessons  from  the  Old  World. — Prof.  Douglas  A.  Gil- 
christ  of  Armstrong  College,  Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, 
England,  has  made  many  experiments  in  fertilizing 
meadow  and  pasture  land  long  laid  down  in  the  counties 
of  Cumberland,  Durham  and  Northumberland.  In  a  bul- 
letin on  "Effect  of  Manures  on  Old  Hay  Land,"  issued 
in  February,  1906,  I  find  much  of  great  interest  and 
value.  The  soils  operated,  however,  are  some. of  them 
quite  different  from  any  commonly  used  in  America,  ex- 
cept that  we  have  peaty  soils  in  our  northern  states.  The 
experiments  found  a  most  interesting  change  in  the 
character  of  these  old  meadows  consequent  on  fertiliza- 
tion, the  use  of  basic  slag  bringing  in  the  better  species 
of  grass  and  many  clovers.  Work  of  a  similar  nature,  and 
equally  significant  in  results,  is  under  way  at  the  Rotham- 
sted  Experiment  Station  at  Harpenden,  England,  as  re- 
ported by  Director  A.  D.  Hall.  I  quote  thus  from  Prof. 
Gilchrist : 

Effects  of  manures  on  herbage  and  soil  nitrogen. — "From  an  anal- 
ysis of  the  soil  of  the  unmanured  plot,  it  was  seen  to  be  of  a  very 
poor  character.  It  contains  14  per  cent  of  stones  and  nearly  6  per 
cent  of  poor,  turfy,  organic  matter.  It  is  remarkably  poor  in  avail- 
able phosphates  and  potash,  and  contains  only  25  per  cent  of  lime. 
This  poorness  in  lime  probably  explains  the  greater  effectiveness 
of  basic  slag  than  of  superphosphate  on  this  soil,  and  also  the  much 
worse  results  with  sulphate  of  ammonia  than  with  nitrate  of  soda. 
This  has  been  demonstrated  in  a  striking  manner  at  Woburn.  A 
student  took  samples  of  soil,  12"  square  on  the  surface  and  6"  deep, 
from  four  of  the  plots  in  July,  1905,  and  also  collected  the  herbage 


BRITISH  EXPERIMENTS 


305 


growing  on  each  of  the  samples,  and  made  a  botanical  analysis  of 
them.     Following  are  the  results : 

•COMPOSITION  OF  HERBAGE  (HAY). 


Plot. 

Manuring. 

Legumes. 

Grasses. 

Weeds. 

Weight  of 
dry  hay. 

1 

No  manure                            

Per  cent. 
11.5 

Per  cent. 

48.7 

Per  cent. 
39.8 

Grams. 
19.9 

7 

Slag  and  kainit  

23.0 

53.8 

23.2 

53.4 

8 

Nitrate,  slag  and  kainit  

19.3 

59.8 

20.9 

49.3 

9 

Sulph.  ammonia,  slag  and  kainit 

8.5 

64.3 

27.2 

42.6 

"On  Plot  1  there  was  an  abundance  of  plantain  and  field  wood- 
rush,  while  the  grasses  (chiefly  bent  and  fescues)  were  poor  and 
stunted,  with  no  seed  stalks,  and  the  legumes  were  represented  only 
by  a  little  birdsfoot  trefoil  and  white  clover.  Plot  7  had  an  abund- 
ant sole  of  white  clover  herbage,  with  some  red  clover  and  other 
legumes.  The  grasses  were  bent  and  fescues,  with  some  Yorkshire 
fog  and  cocksfoot,  the  last  being  better  developed  here  than  on. any 
other  plot.  There  was  much  less  white  clover  on  Plot  8,  and  the 
plants  were  weak.  Sweet  vernal  and  crested  dogstail  were  present, 
in  addition  to  the  grasses  on  the  last  plot,  while  plantain  and  yellow 
rattle  were  the  principal  weeds.  On  Plot  9  white  clover  was  weaker 
than  on  Plot  8;  fescues  and  bent  were  the  chief  grasses,  with  some 
sweet  vernal,  while  plantain  and  field  woodrush  were  the  principal 
weeds. 
NITROGEN  IN  THE  HERBAGE,  ROOTS  AND  SOIL  OF  DIFFERENT  PLOTS. 


Roots  and  soil  to  a 
depth  of  six  inches. 

Plot  1. 
No  manure. 

Plot  7. 
Slag  and 
kainit. 

Plot  8. 
Nitrate,  slag 
and  kainit. 

Plot  9. 
Sulph.  ammonia, 
slag  and  kainit 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen  in  herbage. 

.013 

.029 

.031 

.032 

Nitrogen  in  roots  

.039 

.047 

.044 

.051 

Nitrogen  in  soil  

.107 

.112 

.103       . 

.109 

"The  foregoing  figures  show  that  the  soil  is  practically  no  richer 
in  nitrogen  on  Plots  8  and  9,  after  the  continuous  application  of 
either  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia  for  thirteen  years, 


306  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

than  on  Plot  lv  the  unmanured  plot.  Plot  7,  however,  continuously 
dressed  with  slag  and  kainit,  but  no  nitrogen,  for  the  same  period, 
has  now  about  5  per  cent  more  soil  nitrogen  in  the  surface  6"  of 
soil  than  in  the  same  of  the  unmanured  plot,  and  has  also  produced 
more  than  double  the  weight  of  hay.  From  the  analysis  of  the  hay 
it  has  been  calculated  that  the  hay  removed  annually  from  Plot  7 
contained  18  pounds  more  nitrogen  per  acre  than  that  removed  from 
Plot  1,  or  as  much  nitrogen  in  13  years  as  is  contained  in  13^5 
cwt.  nitrate  of  soda.  There  is  also  an  increase  of  .005  per  cent 
nitrogen  in  the  surface  6"  of  soil  of  Plot  7  over  that  of  Plot  1, 
which  represents  about  75  pounds  of  nitrogen  an  acre,  the  equiv- 
alent of  nearly  5  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda.  The  slag  and  potash  on 
Plot  7,  therefore,  have  indirectly  provided  as  much  nitrogen  per 
acre  during  the  13  years  as  is  contained  in  about  18  cwt.  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  and  this  only  takes  into  account  the  surface  6"  of  soil. 
Here  is,  therefore,  an  excellent  demonstration  of  how  mineral 
manures  (slag  and  kainit)  may  indirectly  make  use  of  nitrogen  from 
the  air  by  developing  clovers  and  other  leguminous  plants.  The 
amount  of  phosphates  applied  in  the  slag  is  double  of  that  in  the 
superphosphate;  but  in  each  case  the  quantity  applied  is  probably 
about  the  right  quantity  for  giving  the  best  results.  The  lessons  to 
be  derived  from  these  thorough  and  long-continued  experiments 
on  the  manuring  of  old  land  hay  are: 

"On  the  heavier  soils  phosphatic  manures  are  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant, and  of  these  basic  slag  is  on  the  whole  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. On  the  lighter  soils  basic  slag  alone  is  not  likely  to  be  effec- 
tive, but  when  accompanied  by  a  potash  manure,  excellent  results 
are  usually  given.  Too  heavy  dressings  of  superphosphate  may  do 
considerable  harm  on  some  soils.  It  will  be  seen  when  the  results 
of  several  years  are  taken  into  account  that  neither  nitrate  of  soda 
nor  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  a  desirable  manure  for  old  land  hay. 
The  weight  of  the  crop  will  probably,  in  the  long  run,  be  less,  while 
the  quality  will  undoubtedly  be  poorer.  This  applies  either  to  these 
manures  used  by  themselves,  or  in  combination  with  phosphates  and 
potash.  Slag  only  (on  the  heavier  soils)  or  slag  and  a  potash 
manure — say  muriate  of  potash  or  kainit — usually  develop  clover 
and  allied  plants  in  a  marked  degree,  and  small  annual  dressings 
of  these  will*  continue  this  development  of  clover  herbage,  as  is 
shown  by  many  of  the  experiments.  On  the  whole,  neither  ground 
lime  nor  common  lime  has  given  anything  like  profitable  returns, 


MANURING   ENGLISH    PASTURES  307 

even  several  years  after  application;  in  fact,  these  experiments  in- 
dicate that  basic  slag  is  really  the  best  source  of  lime  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  that  it  owes  its  good  effects  to  the  lime  as  well  as  the 
phosphates  that  it  contains.  Half  a  ton  of  basic  slag  contains  as 
much  lime — partly  free  and  partly  in  combination — as  is  contained 
in  J4  ton  °f  ground  lime.  The  fineness  of  grinding  of  the  slag  un- 
doubtedly increases  the  effectiveness  of  the  lime  as  well  as  .of  the 
phosphates  it  contains.  It  is,  therefore,  suggested  that  for  most 
soils  the  use  of  basic  slag  makes  the  application  of  either  common 
lime  or  ground  lime  unnecessary  for  old  land  hay  or  for  pasture. 
It  is  only  soils  of  a  peaty  character,  or  those  with  a  good  deal  of 
rough,  matty  herbage,  or  some  organic  matter,  that  are  likely  to  give 
a  return  from  these  forms  of  lime.  Slag  generally  supplies  the  lime 
requirements  of  all  except  this  class  of  soils  with  more  profitable 
results.  The  results  of  some  experiments  elsewhere  have  indicated 
that  lime  added  to  slag  diminishes  the  good  effects  of  this  latter 
manure. 

"The  nitrogen-collecting  effects  of  slag,  or  of  slag  and  a  potash 
manure,  are  well  illustrated  by  the  results  at  Broomhaugh,  where  it 
is  shown  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  collected  per  acre  in  the  sur- 
face 6"  of  soil  in  13  years  together  with  that  contained  in  the  extra 
hay  grown  during  that  time,  amounts  to  nearly  as  much  as  is  con- 
tained in  1  ton  of  nitrate  of  soda.  It  is  also  evident  that  this  natural 
supply  of  nitrogen  has  most  beneficial  effects  in  the  soil,  this  being 
a  marked  contrast  to  the  effects  of  active  nitrogenous  manures.  The 
complex  dressings  of  manures — containing  dissolved  bones,  bone- 
meal,  fish  meal,  slag,  superphosphate,  kainit,  and  a  very  little  active 
nitrogen — have  given  excellent  results  on  loam  soils,  but  have  not 
done  so  well  on  stiff  clay.  These  results  are  worth  close  attention, 
as  are  also  the  uniformly  good  results  with  bonemeal  and  kainit 
when  continued  for  11  years  at  three  centres.  When  an  old  land 
hayfield  becomes  matted  with  herbage  on  the  surface,  harrowing 
with  heavy  harrows  at  the  time  the  manures  are  applied  is  of  great 
benefit,  to  open  up  the  surface.  Tusser,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  his  'Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Husbandry,'  advises  farmers 
as  follows: 

'In  meadow  or  pasture  (to  grow  the  more  fine), 
Let  campers*  be  camping  in  any  of  thine.' 

*Football  players. 


308  MEADOWS    AND   PASTURES 

"This  suggests  that,  when  the  turf  -of  an  old  land  hayfield  be- 
comes matted,  it  should  be  grazed  for  one  year  (or  two  if  necessary) 
with  cattle*  and  that  these  should  be  heavily  caked,  which  will, 
by  the  heavier  stock  kept,  tread  down  the  turf  more  thoroughly  and 
so  allow  much  finer  hay  being  produced  in  future  years.  Dung 
gives  excellent  results  on  light  sandy  soils  but  is  not  profitable  if 
applied  to  peaty  soils,  nor  is  it  likely  to  be  so  on  heavy  clay  soils. 
This  manure  develops  coarse  herbage  and  usually  increases  the 
weeds.  To  sum  up,  on  soils  in  poor  condition  an  initial  dressing 
of  y2  ton  of  slag,  with,  on  the  lighter  soils,  the  addition  of  2  cwt. 
muriate  of  potash  or  about  6  cwt.  kainit,  is  likely  to  be  useful.  If, 
however,  dung  has  been  used  on  the  lighter  soils,  the  potash  manure 
may  not  be  necessary.  For  the  after  treatment  of  these  soils,  and 
for  the  general  treatment  of  soils  in  better  condition,  the  application 
of  about  5  cwt.  basic  slag  every  three  years  (with  the  addition  of  1 
cwt.  muriate  of  potash  for  light  soils)  is  likely  to  be  a  good  plan 
of  manuring  per  acre  for  old  land  hay.  On  the  lighter  class  of 
soils,  10  tons  dung  in  addition  at  lengthy  intervals  should  give  ex- 
cellent results,  in  which  case  the  potash  manure  may  be  reduced.  On 
soils  rich  in  lime,  superphosphate  may  be  preferable  to  basic  slag. 
If  no  dung  is  used,  about  3  cwt.  of  fishmeal,  or  other  manure  con- 
taining organic  nitrogen,  applied  every  three  years,  is  likely  to  be  a 
useful  addition.  The  excellent  results  already  obtained  on  a  pasture 
field  by  feeding  Bombay  cotton  cake,  or  other  cake,  on  poor  pasture 
which  has  already  been  improved  by  basic  slag,  indicates  that  the 
best  nitrogenous  dressing  for  old  land  hay  is  to  graze  it  for  one  or 
two  years  and  to  feed  cake  to  the  stock.  Basic  slag  and  the  potash 
manures  will  give  the  best  effects  if  applied  early  in  the  winter.  The 
distribution  of  all  the  manures  must  be  perfect  and  they  should  be 
well  harrowed  in,  especially  if  the  herbage  is  at  all  coarse  and  benty. 
The  improvement  of  large  areas  of  poor  clay  pasture  in  the  north 
of  England  can  be  commenced  by  a  dressing  of  7  to  10  cwt.  an  acre 
of  basic  slag,  followed  up  by  the  regular  feeding  of  cake  to  the  graz- 
ing stock.  It  is  desirable  that  tufty  pasture  should  be  mown  before 
applying  the  slag.  The  lighter  soils  in  pasture  lying  on  the  sand- 


*  Sheep  and  especially  horses  are  not  good  for  this  purpose. 

The  aftermath  of  an  old  land  hay  crop  should  always  be  eaten 
down  and  it  is  an  excellent  practice  to  feed  cake  to  the  cattle  while 
doing  so.  On  old  pasture,  which  has  become  very  coarse  with  the 
growth  of  plants  like  heather,  this  heavy  treading  is  essential. 


ENGLISH    GRASS   EXPERIMENTS  309 

stone  rocks  of  the  Mountain  Limestone  and  the  Millstone  Grit,  and 
other  light  soils  poor  in  lime,  may  be  effectually  improved  by  the 
foregoing  treatment,  with  the  addition  of,  say  2  cwt.  of  muriate  of 
potash  to  the  slag.  For  the  after  treatment  of  these  pastures,  and 
for  the  general  treatment  of  those  in  better  condition,  the  same 
manuring  as  is  outlined  for  the  manuring  of  old  land  hay  may  be 
followed.  Dung,  however,  is  not  likely  to  give  as  good  results  for 
pasture  as  for  hay-making  purposes,  but  it  should  be  noted  that 
dung  greatly  assists  the  formation  of  a  sward  on  thin  pasture  soils 
which  have  been  recently  laid  down.  When  limestone  is  the  under- 
lying rock,  superphosphate  may  be  more  useful  than  slag,  while  the 
feeding  of  cake  will  also  be  useful.  The  same  remarks  apply  to 
lime  as  have  been  made  in  connection  with  old  land  hay." 

Example  of  Pasture  Improvement  in  England. — In 
Bulletin  No.  8  of  the  County  of  Northumberland  Edu- 
cation Committee,  Prof.  Douglas  A.  Gilchrist  presents 
the  results  of  pasture  experiments  running  from  1897 
to.  1905.  This  collection  of  data  is  so  strikingly  useful 
in  giving  a  basis  on  which  to  work  and  something  from 
which  to  plan  work  of  our  own,  that  I  present  the  greater 
part  of  it.  I  regret  that  the  sheep  pastured  were  all 
wethers,  since  it  may  be  that  ewes  with  lambs  would 
have  shown  greater  gains.  It  is  significant,  however, 
that  one  may  expect  from  pasturing  wethers  during  the 
summer  season  (the  reader  will  find  by  table  the  vary- 
ing lengths)  gains  of  from  nothing  (on  unfed  pasture) 
to  152  pounds  per  acre  where  the  pasture  has  had  liberal 
treatment — which  in  this  instance  meant  cake  (cotton- 
seed) fed  on  the  grass — and  in  one  instance  163  pounds 
where  basic  slag  was  used.  While  these  results  seem 
somewhat  small  yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  here  a  gain 
of  100  pounds  per  acre  from  pasturing  would  net  at  least 
$5  more  rental  for  the  land,  and  with  our  fresher  soils 


310  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

of  greater  natural  fertility  than  I  assume  this  field  to 
have  had,  we  should  reach  that  gain  or  more.  Returns 
from  pastures  in  Great  Britain  are,  in  many  cases,  of  eye- 
opening  character  to  an  American.  I  have  changed  the 
values  into  American  terms : 

"Manures  for  pasture  in  Tree  Field. — This  report  deals  with  the 
complete  results  of  the  Tree  Field  experiments  for  the  nine  years 
1897-1905.  A  slightly  modified  scheme  of  treatment  was  begun  in 
1906.  The  field  extends  to  about  34  acres,  and  is  divided  into  11 
plots,  each  3  1/20  acres  in  area.  While  experiments  on  crops  admit 
of  testing  the  comparative  results  by  the  weight  of  crops  produced, 
this  cannot  be  done  with  pasture.  The  results  of  these  experiments 
have,  therefore,  been  gauged  by  the  increases  in  fasted  live-weight 
of  the  sheep  on  the  various  plots.  The  average  prices  of  several 
years  indicated  that  about  7l/2c..  a  Ib.  was  a  fair  figure  at  which  to 
value  the  increase  in  live  weight  of  the  sheep.  Of  course  this  must 
have  a  higher  value  on  the  better  than  on  the  poorer  plots,  but 
granted  that  this  is  so  the  results  arrived  at  would  simply  be  accen- 
tuated. In  arriving  at  the  final  results,  the  increase  in  live  weight 
on  the  untreated  plot  is  deducted  from  the  same  on  the  other  plots, 
and  the  value  of  this  per  acre  has  deducted  from  it  the  average 
annual  cost  of  the  dressing.  The  result  is  the  net  annual  gain  or 
loss  resulting  from  each  of  the  dressings.  Each  plot  has  been 
treated  differently,  and  has  been  stocked  each  year  with  a  suitable 
number  of  sheep.  These  have  always  been  carefully  selected,  and 
graded  at  the  beginning  of  each  season  so  that  each  plot  might  have 
sheep  of  the  same  average  quality ;  and  they  have  been  all  regularly 
weighed  every  four  weeks  during  each  season,  having  previously 
been  fasted.  Cross-bred  wethers  were  purchased  in  the  spring  for 
the  first  three  years,  and  half-bred  wethers  in  the  second  three  years, 
while  for  the  last  three  years  the  stock  has  been  mainly  half-bred 
and  three-parts-bred  wethers.  The  grazing  periods  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: 1897,  June  21-Oct.  11;  1898,  May  16-Oct.  3;  1899,  May  4-Sept. 
21;  1900,  May  23-Oct.  10;  1901,  May  10-Sept.  27;  1902,  May  20-Oct. 
7;  1903,  May  15-Oct  2;  1904,  May  17-Sept.  6;  1905,  June  5-Sept.  25. 
The  first  and  the  last  two  periods  extended  to  16  weeks,  and  the  re- 
mainder to  20  weeks.  As  the  last  four  weeks  always  gave  very  low 
increases  in  the  longer  periods,  a  reversion  was  made  to  the  shorter 


SHEEP   GAINS   ON   GRASS  311 

in  the  last  two  years.    The  numbers  of  sheep  per  plot  have  varied 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  pasture,  and  have  been  as  follows  : 

Plots        12345678^9        10          11 


1897 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

— 

1898* 

10* 

8 

10* 

8 

8 

6 

8* 

8 

8* 

8* 

— 

1899 

8 

6 

12 

8 

8 

6 

8 

8 

8 

8 

— 

1900t 

8 

6 

9t 

9t 

9 

6 

9 

9 

9 

9 

8 

190U 

6 

6 

9 

9 

9 

4 

9 

9t 

9 

9 

n 

1902 

5 

6 

9 

9 

9 

4 

9 

10 

8 

9 

12 

1903 

11 

5 

9 

10 

9 

4 

9 

10 

8 

9 

10 

1904 

12 

5 

9 

9 

8 

4 

9 

9 

8 

9 

9 

1905 

9 

5 

8 

9 

7 

4 

9 

9 

6 

7 

9 

"The  live  weight  gains  per  sheep  per  week  have  been  of  great 
assistance  as  a  guide  in  stocking  the  plots,  as  whenever  these  be- 
came unduly  high  more  stock  was  required,  and  vice  versa.  Follow- 
ing is  a  statement  of  these  for  the  nine  seasons: 

Plots 

1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 

"The  soil  is  a  poor  stiff  clay  lying  on  boulder  clay.  The  diagram 
shows  the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  throughout.  This  has 
been  extracted  from  a  complete  soil  map,  which  has  been  prepared 
from  notes  made  during  a  careful  soil  survey  of  the  farm.  In 
making  this,  holes  were  dug  at  suitable  distances  apart  and  full  notes 
made  of  the  characters  of  the  soils  and  subsoils,  every  care  being 
taken  to  dig  the  holes  in  such  positions  as  would  show  the  average 
depths  of  the  soil,  and  expose  good  sections  of  the  soil  and  subsoil. 
From  the  diagram  it  will  be  seen  that  the  soil  is  of  almost  even  char- 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

1.9 

0.7 

1.8 

1.0 

1.3 

0.9 

1.7 

1.6 

1.8 

1.4 

— 

2.0 

1.2 

2.2 

2.1 

1.9 

1.3 

2.1 

2.2 

1.5 

1.9 

1.6 

2.0 

1.1 

2.6 

2.1 

1.9 

1.2 

2.0 

2.1 

2.0 

2.0 

1.3 

1.5 

1.5 

1.7 

2.2 

2.3 

1.1 

2.3 

2.4 

2.1 

2.2 

2.1 

1.3 

1.0 

1.7 

1.8 

1.9 

0.9 

1.9 

1.9 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

2.1 

1.7 

2.1 

2.4 

2.1 

1.5 

2.3 

2.5 

2.2 

2.3 

2.3 

2.6 

1.4 

1.7 

1.8 

1.5 

1.5 

1.7 

1.8 

1.9 

1.8 

1.7 

2.8 

1.9 

1.7 

1.9 

1.8 

1.5 

1.9 

2.0 

1.4 

1.6 

2.2 

1.0 

1.2 

1.0 

1.1 

0.9 

0.6 

0.9 

1.2 

0.9 

1.1 

1.2 

*  On  June  27  Plots  1  and  7  had  one  added;  and  Plots  3,  9,  and 
10,  two  added. 

t  On  June  20  Plot  3  had  three  added;  on  July  18  Plot  4  had  one 
added,  and  Plot  8  had  two  added. 

t  On  June  8  Plot  8  had  three  added;  on  July  13  Plot  11  had  three 
added. 


312 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


Tree  held. 

Soils'*  Sukso/Js 


ENGLISH  PASTURE  STUDIES  313 

acter  throughout,  except  for  the  variations  on  Plot  11,  which  are 
there  indicated.  This  last  plot  is  sheltered  by  trees  on  its  northern 
and  western  boundaries,  which  also  renders  it  not  quite  comparable 
with  the  others.  Generally  speaking  the  soil  of  the  field  varies  from 
4"  to  12"  in  depth,  is  a  poor  clay  and  clay  loam  throughout,  and  is 
practically  all  lying  on  a  subsoil  of  poor  yellow  boulder  clay.  Of  the 
706,000  acres  under  crops  and  pasture  in  the  County  of  Northum- 
berland, there  are  over  400,000  acres  lying  on  this  boulder  clay  sub- 
soil, so  that  the  Tree  Field  results  are  of  great  value  as  a  guide  to 
the  manuring  of  the  bulk  of  the  pastures  of  the  county.  That  Tree 
Field  has  one  of  the  poorest  of  this  class  of  soils  may  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that  Cockle  Park  has  not  since  1829  been  let  at  more 
than  $3.60  an  acre,  and  that  this  field  is  one  of  the  poorest  on  the 
farm,  and  has  at  no  time  been  worth  more  than  $2.40  an  acre.  It 
was  under  cultivation  and  grew  wheat  crops  frequently  till  about  40 
years  ago,  since  when  it  has  been  lying  under  pasture,  which  before 
1897  was  poor  and  benty  and  worth  only  about  $0.60  an  acre.  The 
soil  has  been  analyzed  by  Mr.  Collins,  who  found  it  to  contain  .2 
per  cent  nitrogen,  .07  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  .5  per  cent 
potash.  There  was  soluble  in  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  citric  acid, 
.005  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  .013  per  cent  of  potash.  It  also 
contained  .69  per  cent  of  lime  (CaO).  For  the  last  five  years  this 
Plot  (Plot  6,  untreated)  has  been  stocked  with  four  sheep,  but  it 
had  a  larger  number  in  the  previous  years.  The  average  gain  in 
live  weight  per  acre  per  annum  has  been  37  1/9  pounds,  which  at 
7l/2c.  a  pound  is  equal  to  $2.78  an  acre.  Live  weight  increase,  how- 
ever, is  not  worth  nearly  as  much  from  this  plot  as  from  the  plots 
which  have  been  improyed  by  treatment,  so  that  the  real  returns 
are  considerably  less  than  the  above.  In  five  of  the  nine  years 
the  sheep  on  this  plot  were  worth  less  at  the  end  than  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  season.  On  Plot  3,  10  cwt.  slag  applied  for  1897  has 
at  a  gross  cost  of  $5.44  given  an  average  annual  gain  of  $5.34  for 
the  nine  years,  a  marvelous  return  from  this  single  dressing.  It  had 
the  greatest  effect  in  the  third  season  after  its  application  (when  it 
gave  163  pounds  per  acre  of  live  weight  increase,  worth  about  $12.24) 
and  even  in  the  ninth  season  afterwards  has  given  33  pounds  of 
live  weight  increase,  worth  about  $2.44  an  acre.  Clover  develop- 
ment was  greatest  in  the  second  year  (about  20  per  cent  of  the  herb- 
age). The  poor  bent  grass  has  been  greatly  reduced.  The  soil  has 
been  improved  in  texhire  and  darkened  in  color  to  a  marvelous 


314 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


extent  on  this  plot,  and  on  all  the  plots  where  clover  development 
has  .taken  place. 
"On  Plot  4,  10  cwt.  slag,  half  applied  for  1897  and  half  for  1900, 


MANURES  FOR  PASTURE  IN  TREE  FIELD.    RESULTS  PER  ACRE  FOR 
NINE  SEASONS,  1897-1905.    PLOTS  3  1-20  ACRES  IN  AREA. 


Treatment  and  its  total  cost  for  nine 
years,  1897-1905. 

Average  of  nine  years,  1897-1905. 

Treatment. 

Cost. 

Hay. 

Live  weight  increase 
per  sheep  over  plot  6. 

Annual 
gain  or 
loss(—  ) 

Amount. 

Value  at 
$.075  a  Ib. 

Dec.  cotton  cake  fed  on  plot,  total 
of  597  Ibs.  1897-8,  again  1903,  and 
again  1904*     

$27.84 

24.00 
5.44 

5.44 
8.64 

Cwt. 

19% 

12% 
25 

20% 

16% 

8% 

17* 

20K 
20 
20 

Lbs. 
69  5-9 

12  5-9 
79  8-9 

66 

57 

$5.22 

.94 
5.98 

4.96 
6.26 

$2.14 

—1.74 
5.34 

4.32 
3.30 

Common  lime,  4  tons  1897,  and 
again  1903  

Basic  slag  10  cwt.  1897 

Basic  slag,  5  cwt.  1897,  and  again 
1900  .. 

Superphosphate,  28£,  7  cwt.  (100 
Ibs.  phos.  acid)  1897,  and  again 
1900 

Untreated  throughout  

Supers,  as  on  plot  5;  and  sulph. 
potash,  100  Ibs.  1897,  again  1899, 
and  again  1903  

14.88 
16.80 
18.00 
15.84 

65  7-9 
79  1-9 
54 
61   i-3 

... 
4.94 
5.94 
4.06 
4.62 

. 

3.28 
4.08 
2.06 
2.86 

Supers,  as  on  plot  5;  and  ground 
lime,  10   cwt.  1897,  again  1909, 

Supers,  as  on  plot  5;  and  sulph. 
am.,  84   Ibs.   (17  Ibs.  N.)   1897, 
again  1899,  again  1900,  again  1903. 

Diss.  bones,  6  cwt.  (100  Ibs.  phos. 
ac.  and   17  Ibs.  N.)    1897,  and 
again  1900t               .     . 

*  Each  lot  of  cake  contained  42  Ibs.  nitrogen  and  (assumed)  18  Ibs.  phos.  acid 
and  9  Ibs.  potash. 

t  Plot  10  has  received  half  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen  applied  to  plot  9. 

5  cwt.  slag  contains  100  Ibs.  phosphoric  acid.  100  Ibs.  sulphate  of  potash  con- 
tain 50  Ibs.  potash.  Dissolved  bones,  1906,  contain  100  Ibs.  phosphoric  acid  and 
22.8  Ibs.  nitrogen.  142  Ibs.  nitrate  of  soda  contain  22.8  Ibs.  nitrogen. 

The  cost  of  manures  per  ton  was  as  follows:  Basic  slag,  $11.43;  superphos- 
phate, $12.65.;  sulphate  of  potash,  $47.20;  sulphate  of  ammonia,  $63.26;  dissolved 
bones,  $26.76.  Decorticated  cotton  cake  cost  $35.28;  common  lime,  $3.04,  and 
ground  lime,  $4.87. 


SHEEP   GAINS   ON    GRASS  315 

has  not  been  quite  so  effective,  the  average  annual  net  gain  for  the 
nine  years  being  reduced  from  $5.34  to  $4.32.  It  is  evident  that  the 
application  of  this  amount  of  slag  in  a  single  dressing  is  likely  to 
give  the  best  result  in  commencing  the  improvement  of  poor  pasture 
of  this  character;  10  cwt.  slag  gave  321  pounds  live  weight  increase 
per  acre  in  the  first  three  years  after  its  application,  whereas  5  cwt 
slag  gave  only  132  pounds  in  the  same  time,  considerably  less  than 
half  of  the  larger  dressing.  That  a  second  application  of  slag  may 
be  most  effective  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  for  three  years  after  the 
first  application  of  5  cwt.  slag  the  live  weight  increase  amounted 
to  132  pounds,  while  the  same  for  three  years  after  the  second  appli- 
cation amounted  to  284  pounds.  The  second  application  therefore 
more  than  doubled  the  results.  In  the  ninth  season  Plot  4  has  given 
an  increase  of  41  pounds  in  live  weight  per  acre,  as  compared  with 


LIVE 

WEIGHT  INCREASES  IN 

SHEEP  PER 

ACRE, 

1897-1905 

Total  on 

r— 

Over  plot 

6  (untreated  throughout) 

on  plots- 

•> 

plot  6. 
1897  37 

. 
43 

-5 

40 

7 

19 

35 

32 

42 

IV 

22 

1  1 

1898  

53 

91 

11 

118 

60 

51 

68 

66 

41 

64 

— 

1899  

48 

58 

—  1 

163 

65 

55 

59 

66 

61 

58 

— 

1900  

44 

36 

16 

87 

95 

93 

93 

115 

84 

90 

45 

1901  

23 

28 

18 

82 

84 

92 

90 

121 

75 

77 

108 

1902  

41 

30 

27 

86 

105 

86 

94 

123 

79 

98 

144 

1903  

41 

152 

7 

58 

76 

50 

62 

79 

58 

68 

70 

1904  

33 

152 

20 

52 

61 

45 

59 

65 

31 

46 

73 

1905  

14 

36 

20 

33 

41 

22 

32 

46 

15 

30 

44 

Total  .  .  .  .J 

134 

626 

113 

719 

594 

513 

592 

713 

486 

553 

484 

Average  \ 
annual    / 

37  1-! 

)    695 

-9   125-9 

798-9 

66 

57 

657-9 

792-9 

54 

61 

4-9     80% 

33  pounds  on  Plot  3,  which  shows  that  although  the  net  gain  has 
been  the  greater  after  the  single  dressing  of  slag,  the  unexhausted 
residue  is  now  the  greater  where  half  of  it  was  withheld  till  three 
years  later.  5  cwt.  slag  increased  the  proportion  (not  total  amount) 
of  clovers  to  the  same  extent  in  the  first  three  years  as  did  10  cwt, 
while  in  the  first  year  after  the  second  application  of  5  cwt.  slag, 
the  clovers  amount  to  32  per  cent,  and  even  in  the  ninth  year  (or 
sixth  after  the  second  application  of  slag)  to  17  per  cent  While 
therefore  the  results  on  this  plot  have  not  been  quite  so  good  as 
on  Plot  3  the  clover  development  has  been  greater  and  much  better 
maintained, 


316 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


"The  following  figures  show  the  comparative  effects  of  15  cwt. 
slag  on  Plot  11,  and  10  cwt.  slag  on  Plot  3  for  six  years  after  appli- 
cation, the  former  having  been  applied  for  1900,  and  the  latter  for 
1897.  (Plot  11  was  started  three  years  later  than  the  others  and  its 
results  therefore  are  not  included  in  the  table).  The  better  results 
given  by  10  cwt.  slag  may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
while  10  cwt.  slag  developed  20  per  cent  of  clover  two  years  after 
its  application,  15  cwt.  increased  it  to  over  35  per  cent,  but  York- 
shire fog  was  developed  to  the  extent  of  nearly  50  per  cent  four 
years  after  the  heavier  dressing  of  slag,  whereas  it  increased  in 
the  same  time  to  less  than  20  per  cent  by  the  lighter  dressing.  This 
large  amount  of  fog  is  the  likely  cause  of  the  smaller  returns  from 
the  heavier  dressing  of  slag  in  the  later  years. 

LIVE-WEIGHT  INCREASES  IN  POUND  PER  ACRE   (OVER  PLOT  6). 


15  cwt.  slag. 

10  cwt.  slag. 

First  year    

45 

40 

Second  year  

108 

118 

Third  year  

144 

163 

Fourth  year     

70 

87 

Fifth  year    

73 

82 

Sixth  year  

44 

86 

Total 

484 

576 

Average  

80% 

96 

"The  soil  of  Plot  11  is  more  variable  in  character  than  that  of 
the  other  plots,  and  there  were  slight  differences  in  the  treatment 
of  this  plot  in  the  earlier  years,  but  the  fact  that  the  results  here 
were  probably  the  same  as  those  on  the  untreated  plot  for  three 
years  before  the  application  of  the  slag,  renders  the  foregoing  re- 
sults fairly  reliable.  Plot  5  had  7  cwt.  superphosphate  per  acre  ap- 
plied for  1897  and  the  same  for  1900.  This  contained  the  same 
amount  of  phosphoric  acid  and  was  applied  at  the  same  times  as 
the  two  dressings  of  slag  on  Plot  4.  In  the  first  three  years  super- 
phosphate gave  a  total  live  weight  increase  of  125  pounds  as  com- 
pared with  132  pounds  from  slag  similarly  applied  on  Plot  4.  Super- 


MANURE  ON  ENGLISH  PLOTS  317 

phosphate  gave  the  better  result  in  the  first  year  but  a  poorer  in 
the  last  two  years.  The  second  application  of  superphosphate  gave 
271  pounds  increase  in  live  weight  in  the  three  years  after  the  sec- 
ond dressing  had  been  applied,  as  compared  with  284  pounds  by 
slag  in  that  period.  That  this  manure  becomes  more  quickly  ex- 
hausted than  slag  is  shown  by  its  giving  only  22  pounds  live  weight 
increase  per  acre  in  the  ninth  season  (sixth  after  the  second  appli*- 
cation)  whereas  slag  gave  41  pounds  in  the  same  year.  The  net 
gain  from  this  plot  was  $3.30  per  acre  annually  as  compared  with 
$4.32  from  slag  similarly  applied.  With  one  year's  exception  (1900) 
clover  has  not  been  so  well  developed  on  this  plot,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  clover  increase  has  been  of  a  satisfactory  character,  and 
has  been  well  maintained  till  the  ninth  year.  Plot  10  had  6  cwt. 
dissolved  bones  in  1897  and  the  same  in  1900.  These  contained 
the  same  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  as  the  superphosphate  for 
Plot  5,  and  in  addition  the  former  contained  34  pounds  nitrogen 
in  the  two  dressings.  The  sheep  have  increased  in  liveweight 
4l/2  pounds  more  per  acre  annually  on  this  plot  than  where  super- 
phosphate was  used,  but  owing  to  the  less  cost  of  the  latter  manure 
the  net  gain  per  acre  annually  on  this  plot  is  only  $2.86  an  acre 
as  compared  with  $3.30  from  superphosphate.  The  results  also 
show  that  the  lasting  effects  of  dissolved  bones  correspond  very 
closely  to  that  of  superphosphate.  Both  these  manures  gave  their 
best  effects  more  quickly  than  slag,  but  did  not  give  such  good 
results  in  the  later  years.  Dissolved  bones  have  not  retained 
clovers  so  well  in  the  later  years  as  superphosphate. 

"Plot  8  has  had  the  same  superphosphate  as  Plot  5,  and  in 
addition  100  pounds  sulphate  of  potash,  for  each  of  the  years 
1897,  1899  and  1903.  The  result  has  been  an  average  increase 
per  acre  annually  of  nearly  9  pounds  live  weight  over  Plot  5, 
which  has  just  paid  the  cost  of  the  potash  manure,  but  has  given 
no  increase  in  the  net  profit.  It  is  rather  striking  that  the  potash 
manure  has  not  at  all  increased  the  clover  plants,  as  there  have 
been  fewer  of  these  here  than  on  Plot  5,  where  superphosphate 
only  was  used.  There  is  evidently  nearly  sufficient  potash  in 
'this  clay  soil  to  supply  the  pasture  requirements,  at  any  rate  for 
a  considerable  time.  Plot  9  received  the  same  superphosphate  as 
Plot  5,  and  in  addition  £4  cwt.  sulphate  of  ammonia  for  each  of 
the  years  1897,  1899,  1900  and  1903.  As  a  result  the  average  an- 
nual increase  in  live  weight  has  been  reduced  by  3  pounds  an 


318  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

acre,  and  the  net  gain  per  annum  from  $3.30  to  $2.06  an  acre.  In 
the  four  years  that  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  applied  the  live 
weight  increase  was  greater  by  7  pounds  per  acre  per  annum,  but 
in  the  five  years  this  manure  was  not  used  the  average  decrease 
was  13M  pounds  (=  $2.42  per  acre  per  annum).  Here  we  have  a 
clear  demonstration  of  bad  after-effects  of  this  manure  on  pasture, 
and  a  striking  evidence  against  this  manure  having  any  residual 
value  after  the  first  year  it  is  applied  to  pasture,  showing  on  the 
contrary  that  compensation  is  needed  for  its  bad  after-effects.  This 
manure  has  on  the  average  slightly  repressed  the  clover. 

"Plot  2  had  4  tons  lime  per  acre  for  1897,  and  another  4  tons  for 
1903.  The  increase  in  live  weight  of  the  sheep  has  been  only  12^ 
pounds  per  acre  annually,  and  when  the  cost  of  the  lime  is  de- 
ducted, the  net  loss  has  been  $1.74  per  acre  per  annum.  On  this 
poor  exhausted  soil  (especially  poor  in  available  phosphates)  there 
has  not  been  sufficient  plant  food  on  which  the  lime  could  exert 
its  beneficial  action.  Nor  has  the  lime  sweetened  the  coarse  natural 
herbage  to  any  extent,  as  sedges  and  mosses  are  still  nearly  as 
abundant  here  as  on  the  untreated  plot,  while  clover  development 
has  been  very  slight.  Plot  8  has  had  the  same  superphosphate  as 
Plot  4,  and  in  addition  10  cwt.  ground  lime  in  each  of  the  years 
1897,  1899  and  1903.  This  addition  of  lime  has  increased  the  live 
weight  of  the  sheep  per  acre  per  annum  by  22%  pounds,  and  the 
average  annual  net  gain  from  $3.30  to  $4.08  per  acre.  The  live 
weight  increases  due  to  the  addition  of  lime  have  been  about 
the  same  for  the  first,  second  and  third  years  after  each  appli- 
cation. The  average  annual  increase  in  live  weight  from  this  plot 
is  practically  the  same  (about  79  pounds)  as  that  from  10  cwt.  slag 
all  applied  in  1897  (Plot  3),  these  being  the  two  plots  that  have 
given  considerably  the  highest  increases.  The  greater  cost  of  the 
superphosphate  and  lime  than  of  the  slag  accounts  for  the  consid- 
erably less  net  gain  from  the  former.  The  results  on  Plots  3  and 
8  show  that  a  combination  of  superphosphate  and  lime  has  given 
very  similar  results  to  slag,  and  indicate  that  the  lime  present  in 
slag  is  a  valuable  ingredient.  Lime  and  superphosphate  have  de- 
veloped clovers  on  this  plot  to  practically  the  same  extent  as  slag 
on  Plot  4,  and  considerably  more  than  superphosphate  has  done  on 
Plot.  5. 

"On  Plot  1  about  600  pounds  per  acre  of  decorticated  cotton  cake 
have  been  fed  to  the  sheep  in  the  two  years  1897-8,  while  600  pounds 


BRITISH    PASTURE   STUDIES 


310 


,  4v.  monthly   &\w$ 
' ' — — - 


FJFTH    MONTH     IQ9Q-I9O3    ONLY. 


To  frg  1   ore  rag  ft  lire. 
106     49      117 


ureioM-  <^cuas    f  Correc^c ^  )  ]_rt 
103     94      37     103     116     91 


9Q 


10    8-9 


68 


10 


Fifth 

four 

|weeks. 


155 


10 


212 


104- 


Fourth 
four 
weeks. 


20 


10 


37-3 


n 


no 


23-6 


210 


i 


203 


• 


i 


§ 


i 

i 
• 


i 


Third 

four 

weeks 


30 


ZO 


10 


2-6 


1 


^ 


%. 


^ 


33 


l 


i 

m 


^ 
%. 


Second 
four 
weeks. 


40 


30 


20 


10 


m 


m 


I 


3?: 


i 
i 


1 

i 


960 


38J 


i 


%% 


^ 


First 
four 

weeks. 


456 


8       Q        JO 


320  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURED 

were  also  fed  to  them  in  each  of  the  years  1903  and  1904.  The 
result  has  been  an  increase  of  69^2  pounds  in  live  weight  per  acre 
annually  and  a  net  gain  of  $2.14  per  acre  per  annum.  Taking  the 
two  years  1897-8  as  one  for  this  purpose,  the  cake  in  the  years 
in  which  it  was  fed  gave  an  average  increase  of  146  pounds  in 
live  weight  per  acre  per  annum,  which  is  equal  to  $10.94  at  3l/2c.  a 
pound.  As  each  600  pounds  of  cake  cost  about  $9.28  this  left  a 
gain  of  $1.66  an  acre  from  feeding  the  cake  in  each  of  these  years. 
In  the  five  years  that  cake  was  not  fed  on  this  plot  the  average 
live  weight  increase  per  acre  was  about  37^  pounds,  equal  to  about 
$2.80  in  value,  a  most  satisfactory  result.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  extra  treading  of  the  pasture,  by  the  heavier  stock  in  the  years 
that  the  cake  was  fed,  has  assisted  the  manurial  ingredients  of  the 
cake,  passed  through  the  sheep  to  the  land,  in  improving  the  pas- 
ture. The  good  effects  of  the  cake  fed  in  1897-8  were  well  main- 
tained for  four  years  thereafter,  as  even  the  fourth  season  after 
the  cake  was  stopped  there  were  30  pounds  an  acre  of  live  weight 
increase,  worth  just  over  $1.92.  The  results  in  1905,  however,  were 
not  up  to  expectation  as  only  36  pounds  increase  in  live  weight  were 
given,  although  cake  had  been  fed  for  the  two  previous  years.  For 
every  shilling  spent  on  treatment  the  following  returns  have  been 
given:  By  slag  on  Plot  3,  $2.28;  by  same  on  Plot  4,  $1.90;  by  super- 
phosphate on  Plot  5,  $1.06;  by  same  and  potash  on  Plot  7,  $0.72; 
by  same  and  ground  lime  on  Plot  8,  $0.76;  by  same  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia  on  Plot  9,  $0.48;  by  dissolved  bones  on  Plot  10,  $0.62; 
by  lime  on  Plot  2,  $0.16  (loss)  ;  and  by  cake  fed  on  Plot  1,  $0.40. 

"The  Tree  Field  average  monthly  and  average  annual  gains  cal- 
culated per  acre  per  annum,  are  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  best 
results  were  given  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  season,  and  were 
comparatively  small  in  the  last  periods  (each  of  four  weeks)  when 
grazing  was  continued  for  twenty  weeks.  The  climatic  conditions 
make  the  average  grazing  season  quite  a  short  one.  The  good 
results  of  slag  (Plots  3  and  4),  and  of  superphosphate  and  lime 
(Plot  8)  stand  out  in  a  striking  manner.  Cake  fed  on  Plot  1  also 
shows  well,  but  lime  only  on  Plot  2,  contrasted  with  Plot  6,  shows 
little  improvement  over  this  the  untreated  plot." 

There  follow  very  interesting  accounts  of  the  effect 
of  the  various  fertilizers  on  the  composition  of  the  herb- 
age. Briefly,  it  was  seen  that  any  sort  of  fertilization 


SUMMARY  ON  FERTILIZATION  321 

decreased  the  weeds  and  increased  the  useful  plants, 
grasses  and  clovers;  that  basic  slag  increased  the  clovers 
about  20  per  cent  and  some  years  up  to  35  per  cent, 
while  weeds  were  much  reduced,  and  that  the  plot  having 
1,500  pounds  of  slag  resulted  in  the  cleanest  pasture 
fullest  of  grasses  and  with  most  clovers.  Lime  added 
to  superphosphate  resulted  in  the  most  clovers  of  any 
plot  and  here  also  weeds  were  most  effectually  repressed. 
Lime  alone  slightly  increased  the  clovers  but  had  little 
effect  on  weeds.  The  feeding  of  cake  increased  the 
grasses  and  repressed  the  weeds.  It  was  found  that 
orchard  grass  was  increased  where  basic  slag  was  used 
and  to  a  less  extent  by  bonemeal  and  superphosphate. 
Sheep  fescue  was  increased  by  ground  lime  and  super- 
phosphate and  by  cake  feeding.  As  the  sheep  were 
taken  off  at  the  end  of  summer  there  was  left  grass  to 
be  grazed  by  cattle.  Calling  the  keep  of  a  cow  worth 
24  cents,  the  plots  produced  yearly  revenues  varying 
from  64  cents  on  the  untreated  plot  to  $1.36  on  Plot  3, 
$1.20  on  Plots  4  and  9,  $1.02  on  Plot  10,  $i  on  Plot 
i ,  $1.08  on  Plot  8,  86  cents  on  Plot  2,  96  cents  on  Plot 
5,  $1.02  on  Plot  7. 

SUMMARY  OF  FERTILIZATION. 

Grasses  take  from  the  soil  available  nitrogen,  thrive 
especially  well  in  soils  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  need  also 
phosphorus,  potassium  and  lime.  Most  American  soils 
contain  enough  potassium,  so  the  need  comes  down  to 
lime,  phosphorus  and  nitrogen.  Grasses  can  not  get 
nitrogen  from  the  air,  while  clovers  can.  When  the 
conditions  are  right  for  clovers  and  they  are  well  estab- 


322  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

lished,  they  aid  grasses,  since  they  furnish  available  nitro- 
gen to  the  land.  Clovers  revel  in  a  soil  well  drained, 
somewhat  alkaline  rather  than  acid  (this  is  brought 
about  by  carbonate  of  lime)  and  well  supplied  with 
phosphorus  and  potassium.  The  way,  then,  to  secure 
nitrogen  in  the  meadow  or  pasture  is  to  get  clovers 
growing  in  association  with  grasses,  or  to  use  fertilizers 
rich  in  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda  applied  to  the  grass 
meadow  in  spring  after  growth  has  started  is  an  efficient 
carrier  of  nitrogen.  It  should  be  mixed  with  acid  phos- 
phate or  some  other  carrier  of  phosphorus.  Wheeler  and 
Adams  of  the  Rhode  Island  station  recommend  for  their 
soils  in  timothy  meadow  an  annual  top-dressing  of  400 
to  500  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  300  to  350  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  300  to  350  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash.  Leaving  out  the  potassium  for  soils  not  defi- 
cient in  this  element,  these  proportions  would  doubtless 
serve  well  anywhere.  Commonly  200  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda  to  the  acre  is  termed  a  liberal  use.  Winter  top- 
dressing  of  meadows  with  manure  is  effective.  The  fer- 
tilization of  pastures  is  yet  on  trial,  the  principle  in- 
volved being  to  make  the  land  sweet,  encourage  clovers, 
supply  phosphorus  and  other  elements  when  needed. 
Profitable  results  in  most  instances  will  result  from  the 
use  of  basic  slag,  bonemeal  or  carbonate  of  lime  and 
acid  phosphate.  It  pays  well  to  spread  barnyard  manures 
evenly  and  with  moderate  thinness  over  pasture  land. 
The  feeding  of  concentrated  feeds  to  cattle  on  grass 
gives  perhaps  the  best  results  of  any,  and  rightly  man- 
aged the  gain  is  clear. 

The  first  step  in  the  improvement  of  pastures  is  to 


MANAGEMENT  OF  GRASS  LANDS  323 

drain  them.  Liming  with  ground  limestone  may  fol- 
low if  the  soil  is  lime-deficient.  Apparently  the  use  of 
floats  or  fine-ground  phosphatic  rock  in  large  amounts 
is  effective  through  a  series  of  years.  If  one  is  in  haste 
to  improve  a  pasture  first  correct  soil  acidity  with  lime 
carbonate  and  disk  the  surface  enough  to  loosen  it  some- 
what without  destroying  the  grass.  Then  fertilize  with 
500  pounds  to  the  acre  of  bonemeal,  or  with  400  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  and  100  to  200  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  or  use  the  phosphate  or  bonemeal  alone  and  sow 
over  the  land  fresh  seed,  mainly  of  red  and  white  clovers, 
say  4  pounds  of  red  and  2  pounds  of  white  per  acre  (less 
will  often  serve  well)  and  again  harrow  to  cover  the 
seed.  This  should  be  done  in  early  spring.  It  will  cost 
something  thus  to  fertilize  a  pasture,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  outlay  on  the  farm  will  return  better  profit. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  PASTURES. 

It  is  commonly  assumed  that  a  shaded,  pasture  is  best 
for  grazing  animals,  and  that  shade  may  have  some 
value  in  preventing  sunburning  of  grass.  These  beliefs 
are  fallacious.  Animals  graze  best  in  pastures  with  lit- 
tle or  no  shade,  and  the  grass  suffers  sooner  from  drouth 
under  trees  than  in  the  open  sunlight.  Tree  roots  are 
vigorous  feeders  and  absorb  moisture  and  fertility  more 
rapidly  than  can  grass  roots.  There  is  but  one  tree 
which  will,  to  my  knowledge,  benefit  the  pasture  land 
as  pasture,  and  that  is  the  black  locust,  which,  being  a 
legume,  enriches  the  soil.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  ferti- 
lize grass  growing  under  trees  of  dense  shade;  in  spread- 
ing manure  on  grass  we  always  give  directions  to  our 


324  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

men  not  to  drive  beneath  the  oak  trees  with  which  the 
pasture  is  studded.  Moreover,  what  grass  there  is  found 
growing  under  the  trees  has  in  it  little  sweetness  or  rich- 
ness, and  animals  do  not  care  to  eat  it.  No  one  loves 
trees  better  than  I,  and  we  have  them  in  our  pastures, 
but  we  consider  that  amount  of  land  covered  with  trees 
as  forest  land,  park  land  or  what  you  like,  not  pasture 
land.  I  do  not  like  sheep  to  lie  under  trees  during  the 
heats  of  midday,  as  they  pollute  the  grass  with  their 
droppings  and  afterward  myriads  of  parasites  appear, 
and  when  the  grass  springs  fresh  and  green  lambs  nib- 
bling it  take  them  in  and  are  sickened  and  destroyed. 
While  I  would  not,  from  aesthetic  reasons,  counsel  the 
destruction  of  all  the  trees  in  the  pasture,  yet  I  should 
expect  to  get  larger  returns  from  the  pasture  that  had 
at  most  only  here  and  there  a  tree  scattered  over  its 
surface,  and  most  profit  of  all  from  the  field  that  had 
not  one  tree,  but  where  animals  grazed  in  the  open  and 
took  refuge  from  the  sun  if  at  all  in  airy  sheds  which 
might  be  situated  on  the  highest  land  and  whence  manure 
would  be  taken  from  time  to  time  and  scattered  over  the 
field.  The  waste  of  manure  under  trees  and  in  pond 
holes  and  streams  from  pastured  cattle  is  a  serious  drain 
on  the  resources  of  the  land  and  one  that  no  field  can 
forever  safely  bear. 

Turning  to  Grass. — Once  I  ranched  in  Utah  and  we 
had  2,000  cattle  running  over  the  desert  hills  in  winter, 
eating  the  dry  grass.  Commonly  they  kept  their  flesh 
fairly  well,  though  after  the  snow  had  gone  they  must 
make  long  marches  over  hard  and  stony  trails  to  water 
and  back  again  to  grass.  We  lost  few  from  starvation, 


WINTER  PASTURING  325 

however,  until  grass  came  green  in  spring,  then  sud- 
denly the  cattle  grew  weak  and  our  troubles  began.  It 
was  literally  true  that  10  times  as  many  cattle  starved 
to  death  after  green  grass  came  as  before  that  time, 
though  the  weather  -was  much  more  favorable  then.  The 
fact  is  that  the  first  upthrust  of  the  grass  contains  little 
more  than  colored  water;  there  is  need  of  long  days  of 
sun  to  put  any  sweetness  or  strength  into  it,  and  this 
is  as  true  of  clovers  and  all  plants  grazed  by  beasts.  It 
is  often  well  to  allow  cattle  or  sheep  or  horses  to  roam 
over  the  pasture  during  winter;  it  is  well  if  they  are 
fed  on  it,  since  thus  the  pasture  is  enriched,  but  the 
moment  the  grasses  begin  to  spring  into  growth  at  the 
advent  of  warm  weather,  every  animal  should  be  taken 
off  and  confined  to  the  barns  and  yards.  It  is  better 
for  them,  because  they  will  then  continue  to  eat  their 
dry  hay  and  grain  with  good  relish.  Their  gains  will 
be  far  greater  than  if  they  were  distracted  by  the  lure 
of  tempting  morsels  of  green  grass,  about  as  fattening 
as  pickles  to  the  schoolgirl.  It  is  better  for  the  grass, 
also,  because  having  been  besieged  all  winter  by  cold 
and  darkness,  it  now  needs  a  chance  to  stretch  up  into 
the  sunlight  and  elaborate  its  sap,  strengthen  its  root 
system,  and  in  general  organize  itself  for  the  season's 
campaign.  There  may  be  three  times  the  weight  of 
grass  taken  from  a  properly  managed  pasture  than  will 
come  from  one  gnawed  down  right  to  the  earth  from 
the  day  it  first  turns  green  in  the  spring.  I  am  con- 
vinced that  this  one  almost  criminal  blunder  of  too  early 
stocking,  more  than  any  one  other  thing,  has  tended  to 
make  pastures  unprofitable.  Many  evils  result  from  the 


326  MEADO\VS   AND    PASTURES 

practice.  Weeds  are  encouraged,  since  through  animals 
gnawing  the  palatable  grasses  weeds  get  started  on  the 
almost  bare  land,  then  the  soil  has  too  little  shade  and 
the  sun  dries,  it  out  badly.  Probably  twice  as  much 
available  moisture  is  retained  in  the  pasture  that  is  al- 
lowed to  get  a  good  strong  start  in  the  spring,  as  is  found 
in  the  pasture  grazed  down  hard  from  the  start.  In 
short,  make  a  soil  mulch  of  the  grass  itself.  You  can 
not  cultivate  grass  land;  the  one  thing  probably  that 
you  can  do  to  help  retain  moisture  is  to  allow  the  grass 
to  mulch  the  ground.  And  even  here  one  must  use 
discretion. 

Conditions  vary  according  to  localities.  There  are 
moist  regions  where  it  is  safe  to  pasture  rather  closely— 
where,  in  fact,  the  grass  falls  and  becomes  matted  to- 
gether, so  that  it  no  doubt  loses  its  sweetness  if  not 
grazed  fairly  close.  Most  of  America,  however,  has  hot 
suns  and  dry  weather  so  that  the  pastures  need  moisture 
more  than  any  other  thing,  .and  the  one  way  to  main- 
tain it  is  to  avoid  close  grazing  until  in  midsummer  or 
a  little  later,  when  it  becomes  necessary.  I  have  seen 
bluegrass  in  north  Missouri  make  a  dense  mat  a  foot 
thick  over  the  ground  and  cattle  fattened  well  on  it.  On 
the  other  hand  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier  of  the  Virginia 
station  writes  as  follows : 

"I  have  been  making  some  notes  on  pasture  management  in  this 
part  of  the  state  and  a  few  things  seem  to  be  of  importance.  One 
is  that  heavy  pasturing  in  this  section  is  better  than  light.  This 
seems  to  be  contrary  to  the  general  opinion  of  writers  on  the  subject. 
We  can  ruin  our  pastures  by  leaving  them  ungrazed  for  a  year  or 
two.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  pasture  should  be  grazed  early 
in  the  spring  before  the  grass  gets  a  good  start  or  late  in  the  fall 


SHIFTING  GRAZING  STOCK  327 

after  growth  has  stopped,  but  during  the  summer  I  do  not  believe 
there  is  much  danger  from  over-grazing,  but,  on  the  contrary,  heavy 
grazing  will  give  the  best  sod.  We  are  working  on  the  matter  of 
weed  eradication  and  have  seen  various  instances  where  broom 
sedge  and  other  troublesome  weeds  have  been  destroyed  by  feed- 
ing a  haystack  on  the  infested  area  and  also  by  liberal  dressings  of 
stable  manure." 

This  indicates  that  the  question  requires  quite  local 
interpretation.  Deeper  in  the  Virginia  mountains,  in 
a  moister  region,  perhaps,  lives  Henry  Stuart,  a  leader 
among  cattle  grazers.  It  has  been  his  experience  that 
there  should  be  "good  grass  in  June  and  just  enough 
cattle  on  it  so  that  the  grass  keeps  gaining  a  little  all 
the  rest  of  the  summer."  Thus  he  makes  his  export 
steers,  and  after  they  have  gone  he  puts  younger,  thinner 
cattle  on  the  pasture  to  graze  in  the  fall. 

Rotate  Animals  in  Pasture. — Where  possible  it  is  best 
to  feed  off  the  pasture  with  different  classes  of  animals 
in  rotation.  Horses  like  one  class  of  herbage  and  cows 
a  different  sort,  while  sheep  eat  things  that  both  horses 
and  cattle  reject.  If  then  the  pasture  can  be  grazed  al- 
.ternately  by  each  class  of  stock,  or  if  they  can  live  peace- 
ably together,  the  whole  field  will  be  well  eaten  down 
together  and  few  spots  left  to  grow  up  untouched.  Sheep 
also  will  aid  greatly  by  keeping  down  the  weeds.  If 
brush  comes  in  to  trespass,  goats  will  aid  in  destroying 
it.  Naturally,  the  animals  first  put  in  take  the  cream, 
the  sweetest  clovers,  the  best  herbage,  and  those  coming 
later  may  not  thrive  quite  so  well  unless  rains  cause 
the  swift  upspringing  of  the  tidbits  again.  There  is 
one  great  advantage  in  rotating  animals  on  pasture — 
they  do  not  take  parasites  from  each  other,  so  the  sheep 


328  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

do  not  by  the  germs  they  may  drop  on  the  grass  en- 
danger horses  or  cattle,  and  vice  versa. 

Managing  the  Rank-groiving  Spots. — On  good  strong 
soils  there  will  be  spots  where  grasses  will  stand  un- 
eaten, while  other  places  will  be  gnawed  too  close.  This 
is  a  serious  waste  of  pasture  land,  the  richest  soil  doing 
no  duty  while  the  poorest  is  overworked.  The  best 
remedy  may  be  to  mow  off  the  rank  spots,  setting  the 
knife  as  close  to  the  ground  as  it  can  well  run,  and  mak- 
ing into  hay  the  herbage  taken  off.  It  will  commonly  be 
greedily  eaten  in  winter.  I  have  even  mowed  it  and  left 
it  stand  in  the  field  in  large  cocks  and  seen  it  all  eaten, 
nearly,  the  perverse  animals  that  had  steadily  refused  the 
grass  while  it  was  green  crowding  around  to  eat  it  after 
it  was  made  into  hay,  neglecting  the  green  and  growing 
grass  to  so  do.  I  suppose  that  animals  are  lazy  enough 
to  like  part  of  their  feed  cut  for  them.  On  soils  need- 
ing lime,  after  cutting  off  the  herbage  from  these  rank- 
growing  spots,  one  can  lime  them  well.  Or  it  may  be 
that  they  need  drainage,  though  there  is  no  doubt  at  all 
that  animals  will  refuse  to  pasture  down  places  that 
need  neither  liming  nor  drainage,  some  difference  in  the 
flavor  of  grasses  determining  their  choice. 

Weeds  in  Pastures. — The  best  way  to  exclude  annual 
weeds  from  pastures  is  to  feed  the  grasses.  The  one 
weed  that  may  come  no  matter  how  good  the  grass  is  is 
ragweed  (Artemesia)  and  this  will  be  eaten  by  sheep  if 
they  have  access  to  it.  To  help  the  pasture,  run  the 
mower  over  it  if  need  be.  Cockleburs  are  troublesome 
in  some  pastures,  but  if  they  are  kept  mown  off  for  two 
years  they  will  very  nearly  disappear.  This  is  true  of 


THE   WEED   NUISANCE  329 

most  annual  weeds  and  some  perennials.  One  can  set 
the  mower  so  high  that  it  will  not  especially  injure  the 
grass.  Ironweeds  (Vernonia  novel)  or  acensis)  are  trouble- 
some perennials.  After  40  years  of  more  or  less  persist- 
ent struggle  with  them  in  one  of  our  pastures  they  are 
still  present,  though  much  reduced.  Mowing  off  just 
as  they  come  into  bloom,  and  feeding  with  .sheep  which 
eat  off  their  leaves  when  young  and  tender,  seem  the 
available  remedies.  Ironweed  comes  in  the  best  soil 
and  troubles  over  a  very  wide  area;  its  roots  are  very 
large  and  strong.  Mulleins  are  biennials  and  are  de- 
stroyed by  pulling  or  mowing  just  as  they  bloom.  Coarse 
rank  weeds  such  as  horseweeds  (Ambrosia  trifida)  and 
jimpson  (Stramonium)  are  easily  destroyed  by  mowing; 
in  fact,  the  mowing  machine  is  a  most  effective  ally  of 
the  pastoralist.  Some  weeds  are  destroyed  by  sprink- 
ling repeatedly  with  strong  brine.  .  The  nettle  is  thus 
affected,  as  also  is  poison  ivy  (Rhus)  and  the  horse  net- 
tle (Solanum  Carolinense).  This  latter  weed  is  a  dis- 
tressing one,  and  is  now  invading  all  of  the  central 
states.  It  has  not  one  use  nor  redeeming  feature,  nor, 
after  it  is  established  all  over  one's  farm,  can  it  ever  be 
eradicated;  so  it  should  be  fought  to  a  finish  at  the  out- 
set of  its  invasion.  One  of  the  most  persistent  and 
troublesome  weeds  is  spearmint.  Mowing  twice  during 
the  season  greatly  injures  it,  and  will  in  time  perhaps 
destroy  it.  Hoarhound  should  be  pulled  by  hand  as  soon 
as  it  appears.  Canada  thistles;  who  can  in  a  sentence 
dispose  of  them?  In  England  farmers  content  them- 
selves with  cutting  them  down  once  or  twice  a  year  to 
prevent  their  seeding.  They  will  continue,  however, 


330  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

to  spread  from  roots.  Canada  thistles  may  be  destroyed, 
if  there  are  but  few,  by  continually  putting  salt  on  them, 
and  as  soon  as  they  reappear  they  should  be  seasoned 
again.  Cattle  will  eat  them.  They  may  be  destroyed 
also  by  persistently  cutting  them  off  just  under  the 
ground  with  a  sharp  hoe.  A  field  badly  infested  may  be 
cleaned  by  being  sown  to  alfalfa;  the  frequent  cutting 
of  the  alfalfa,  and  its  competition  for  soil  moisture, 
cause  the  weed's  destruction.  One  must,  however,  make 
the  soil  right  for  the  alfalfa  or  it  will  not  be  able  to  do 
the  task.  Afterward,  if  the  land  is  desired  for  pasture, 
it  may  be  sown  to  grasses  without  disturbing  the  alfalfa, 
and  soon  it  will  be  more  richly  set  and  more  productive 
than  before. 

The  common  or  bull  thistle  is  a  biennial  and  easily 
destroyed  by  cutting  and  preventing  its  seeding.  My 
father  thought  these  thistles  worth  letting  alone  because 
of  their  soil-enriching  powers.  Doubtless  their  large 
tap  roots  may  open  the  soil,  and  the  rest  it  gets  where 
the  thistle  stands  has  some  effect.  Of  docks  he  felt  dif- 
ferently, and  dug  them  out  religiously.  He  had  a  story 
of  a  blind  man  who  wished  to  buy  land  and  was  driven 
into  the  field  with  his  old  horse.  "Just  tie  him  to  a 
dock,  will  you?"  he  asked  the  would-be  land  seller.  If 
the  man  replied,  "Aye,  I  can  do  that  easily  enough,"  the 
sale  was  all  off,  but  if  he  replied,  "There's  no  docks 
hereabout  but  here's  a  thistle  that  will  hold  him,"  the 
blind  man  closed  the  deal  for  the  land  forthwith. 

English  farmers  sow  some  yarrow  in  their  pastures; 
sheep  graze  it  somewhat,  though  in  America  it  seems  to 
be  practically  uneaten  and  is  a  somewhat  troublesome. 


MOSSES    AND    FERNS  331 

weed.  Digging1  it  out  or  killing  it  by  salting  seems  the 
remedy.  Plantains  and  weeds  in  the  meadow  are  eaten 
in  pastures  pretty  well.  The  daisy  (Heliopsis  helian- 
thoides)  is  a  bad  weed  in  eastern  meadows  and  pastures. 
It  thrives  in  soils  deficient  in  lime  and  fertility,  and  will 
not  persist  in  rich  soils  well  grassed.  The  remedy  there- 
fore is  to  add  to  fertility  and  crowd  it  out,  meantime 
cutting  before  it  seeds. 

Mosses  and  Ferns. — In  northern  latitudes  on  moist 
land  there  is  often  rank  growth  of  ferns  and  large-grow- 
ing mosses,  which  so  completely  occupy  the  land  that 
there  is  no  space  left  for  grass.  These  are  most  trouble- 
some on  rather  poor  land  deficient  in  lime.  The  remedy 
for  moss  is  drainage,  lime  and  enriching.  Ferns  may  be 
slowly  killed  by  repeated  mowings  or  they  may  need 
thorough  cultivation  following  deep  plowing. 

British  people  are  great  students  of  pastures.  They 
grow  large  numbers  of  grasses,  clovers  and  other 
plants  together,  believing  that  by  such  means  they 
get  the  most  good.  They  may  be  right  for  their  own 
localities,  though  it  would  seem  that  the  highest  quality 
in  a  few  plants  would.be  more  useful  than  more  medi- 
ocrity. With  the  view  to  determining  the  relative  value 
of  different  species  of  grasses,  and  of  different  species 
of  plants  other  than  grasses  upon  the  permanent  pastures 
of  England,  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  appointed  a 
commission,  which,  after  investigating  the  subject  for 
several  years,  reported  that  in  different  pastures  the  spe- 
cies of  cultivated  grasses  ranged  from  n  to  100  per 
cent,  of  legumes  from  zero  to  38  per  cent  and  miscel- 
laneous plants,  so-called  weeds,  from  zero  to  89  per  cent. 


332  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

No  correlation  whatever  was  found  between  the  value 
of  the  pasture  as  shown  by  the  beef  and  mutton  pro- 
duced, and  the  botanical  character  of  the  herbage.  Pas- 
tures with  widely  varying  proportions  of  grasses  and 
other  plants  produced  equally  good  results;  while  pas- 
tures with  the  same  percentages  of  grasses  and  other 
plants  gave  widely  different  results,  according  to  Hunt. 

In  Great  Britain  it  is  common  to  sow  such  plants  as 
burnet  (a  plant  of  the  rose  family),  chicory,  (a  deep- 
rooting  plant  that  is  supposed  to  benefit  soils  by  its  deep 
root),  yarrow  and  many  others.  Of  all  these  we  can 
only  render  the  Scottish  verdict,  "Not  proven."  To  the 
writer  it  would  seem  that  two  or  three  grasses  best 
adapted  to  a  soil,  with  as  many  clovers,  will  commonly 
give  better  results  than  more,  and,  in  fact,  the  seeding 
of  rare  grasses  is  almost  impossible  owing  to  the  poor 
germination  of  many  of  the  seeds  found  on  the  market. 

What  Farmers  Buy  in  the  Middle  West. — Men  whom 
I  know  have  sold  grass  and  clover  seeds  for  several  years 
and  the  following  figures,  showing  what  is  called  for, 
may  prove  interesting.  They  make  a  specialty  of  alfalfa 
seed  and  advertise  it,  so  it  would  be  misleading  to  com- 
pare their  sales  of  alfalfa  seed  with  the  sale  of  other 
seeds,  but  excepting  that  many  men  buy  clover  and 
timothy  seeds  of  their  local  seedsmen,  the  list  should 
be  in  line  with  the  demand.  In  percentages  they  sold 
of  red  clover,  100;  mammoth  clover,  32;  alsike  clover, 
36;  crimson  clover,  32;  white  clover,  6.4;  sweet  clover, 
8  (the  demand  rapidly  increasing)  ;  timothy,  88 ;  brome 
grass,  16;  all  the  fescues,  16;  Kentucky  bluegrass,  10.4; 
redtop,  6.4;  orchard  grass,  6.4;  Canada  bluegrass,  4.8; 


GORSE  IN  PASTURES  333 

English  ryegrass,  1.6;  tall  oatgrass,  1.6;  Hungarian  mil- 
let, .32 ;  German  millet,  .8 ;  hairy  vetch,  .8 ;  spring  vetch, 
.24,  and  alfalfa,  800. 

What  Might  Be  Introduced  into  Pastures. — In  Nor- 
mandy and  parts  of  southwestern  England  apple  trees 
are  grown  in  pastures,  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  the  animals  as  for  making  cider.  Still,  I  have 
often  thought  that  if  sweet  apples  were  grown  in  pas- 
tures there  would  be  good  profit  resulting,  and  the  idea 
is  worth  thought  in  regions  where  apples  grow  easily. 
Persimmons  grow  spontaneously  in  all  the  region  south 
of  the  4Oth  parallel,  and  their  fruit  is  relished  by  pigs 
and  sheep,  so  in  clearing  pastures  in  the  South  I  have 
directed  that  persimmon  trees  be  spared,  but  thinned 
somewhat.  Mention  has  been  made  of  the  black  locust 
tree,  the  leaves  of  which  seem  to  enrich  poor  soils  and 
make  bluegrass  come.  The  best  grass  on  many  a  hill- 
side in  Kentucky  and  the .  Virginias  is  in  the  groves  of 
locust  trees.  I  am  acquainted  with  no  other  tree  which 
has  so  much  helpfulness.  Most  trees  are  "poison"  to 
atmospheric  nitrogen;  they  are  giant  clovers.  I  should, 
if  I  lived  in  a  climate  as  mild  as  that  of  Virginia  or 
Kentucky,  introduce  the  furze  or  gorse  plant,  and  get 
it  growing  on  my  poorest  hillsides,  as  it  does  so  freely 
on  poor  hillsides  in  Europe.  Gorse  is  a  leguminous,  spiny 
shrub,  with  tender,  nourishing  young  stems  in  the  spring 
and  during  the  growing  season.  It  affords  much  brows- 
ing for  cattle  and  sheep,  enriches  land  somewhat  and 
beautifies  a  landscape  when  blooming  in  spring.  In 
Scotland  there  is  a  saying  that  "when  the  gorse  is  out 
of  blossom,  then  love  is  out  of  fashion,"  but  in  Scotland 


334  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

they  say  that  the  golden  gorse  blooms  every  month  of 
the  year!  The  broom,  too,  is  a  legume;  is  eaten  more 
or  less  by  sheep,  is  a  lovely  shrub,  and  should  be  started 
in  wild,  rocky  pasture  lands  in  mild  climates,  as  indeed 
it  is  in  the  Willamette  Valley  in  Oregon  and  in  Bedford 
county,  Va.  One  can  buy  seed  of  either  gorse  or  broom 
of  European  seedsmen.  Gorse  is  sown  as  a  hedge  plant, 
on  the  tops  of  earthen  walls,  in  Guernsey  and  Jersey,  and 
its  branches  bake  the  bread  of  the  cottager  after  they 
have  served  their  purpose  of  keeping  the  cold  wind  from 
the  browsing  cows.  Gorse  needs  inoculation,  probably,  to 
succeed  in  America.  There  are  other  things  that  we 
could  bring  in  to  special  localities  with  climates  suiting, 
and  in  time  our  pasture  flora  will  no  doubt  be  consider- 
ably enriched. 

Sir  Walter  Gilbey's  Idea  on  Overstocking. — Sir  Wal- 
ter Gilbey,  a  careful  student  in  England  of  the  horse, 
seems  to  have  found  clue  to  the  disappointment  that  so 
often  follows  attempts  at  horse  breeding.  There  will 
be  seen,  for  instance,  that  one  or  two  wonderful  horses 
have  come  from  certain- pastures  and  then  men  will  un- 
dertake to  produce  there  many  colts,  hoping  that  they 
also  will  have  great  excellence.  In  this  they  are  fre- 
quently disappointed.  To  quote  Sir  Walter:  "I  trust 
that  my  practical  experience  as  a  breeder  of  most  descrip- 
tions of  stock  may  be  held  to  excuse  me  for  offering 
an  opinion  on  so  important  a  subject  as  the  raising  and 
feeding  of  blood  stock.  Whenever  large  breeding  studs 
have  been  established,  I  have  found,  in  every  instance, 
that  after  a  period  the  animals  have  failed  to  maintain 
their  original  standard  of  excellence.  I  am  convinced 


PASTURES  INJURED  BY  HORSES  335 

that  their  deterioration  has  been  due  to  the  overgraz- 
ing of  the  land  whereon  the  dams  and  young  stock  were 
pastured — overgrazing,  or  'staling,'  o*f  the  land  reacting 
unfavorably  on  the  horses;  and  that  soundness,  bone, 
muscle  and  stamina  depend  very  largely  on  the  treatment 
of  the  dams  and  young  animals  which,  above  all  things, 
need  fresh  and  untainted  grazing." 

I  should  be  glad  if  every  horseman  would  read  the 
whole  of  Sir  Walter's  thought-arousing  little  book.  Here 
are  some  of  the  thoughts :  In  nature  horses  graze  wide 
and  are  ever  changing  their  grazing  ground.  In  order 
to  be  kept  in  their  full  health  and  vigor  they  'still  require 
to  be  shifted  from  pasture  to  pasture,  and  their  thrift 
is  immensely  increased  if  they  are  allowed  to  run  where 
no  horses  ran  the  preceding  year.  Mention  is  made  of 
customs  in  Norfolk  where  one  horse  and  no  more  is-  al- 
lowed to  graze  over  6  acres.  Keeping  mares  in  re- 
stricted pastures,  even  with  good  feeding  in  addition, 
commonly  results  in  weak  foals  or  disorders  of  one  sort 
or  another.  That  elusive  but  very  real  thing  called 
"quality"  is  developed  on  new  pastures  or  on  pastures 
where  but  few  horses  run,  and  the  range  is  very  wide. 
After  observing  that  these  pastures  produced  fine  animals 
men  have  often  stocked  them  more  heavily  with  greater 
numbers  of  horses  and  have  been  amazed  to  see  that  they 
did  not  again  reproduce  animals  of  like  remarkable  parts 
and  qualities.  To  quote  again,  "From  the  time  of  her 
conception  she  (the  mare)  should  be  allowed  to  run  in 
fresh,  untainted  pastures;  if  in  pastures  where  horses 
have  not  been  for  the  last  three  years,  all  the  better. 
After  foaling  the  same  policy  should  be  adopted  towards 


336  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

the  mare  and  her  foal  as  regards  fresh  herbage.  The 
foal  from  its  weaning  should  be  treated  in  as  natural 
a  manner  as  possible;  turned  out  and  fed  on  pastures 
where  the  herbage  is  succulent,  and  allowed  a  free  run 
at  his  pleasure.  Not  more  than  three  yearlings  should 
be  turned  out  in  any  one  pasture,  and  the  field  should 
not  be  of  less  extent  than  15  acres." 

I  have  seen  many  instances  to  prove  the  soundness  of 
this  position.  On  a  ranch  where  I  once  lived  in  Utah 
the  mares  ranged  very  wide,  having  no  restrictions. 
Though  not  always  well  fed  they  were  remarkably 
healthy  and  prolific,  and  lacked  little  of  dropping  100 
per  cent  of  foals  and  all  of  them  were  strong  and  healthy 
at  birth.  I  have  seen  men  make  strenuous  effort  to 
produce  draft  colts  when  they  had  very  small  but  good 
pastures;  they  kept  the  mares  well  and  got  them  in  foal 
fairly  successfully,  but  raised  very  few  colts,  while  neigh- 
boring farmers  who  had  wider  pastures  and  fewer  horses 
had  "luck"  and  raised  many  colts.  There  seems  some- 
thing in  the  restricted  range  and  the  grazing  of  mares 
after  one  another  that  lowers  vitality  in  the  offspring, 
even  if  it  does  not  noticeably  lower  it  in  the  mares  them- 
selves. If  one  must  use  small  and  overstocked  pastures 
for  mares  one  should  at  least  endeavor  to  lessen  the  over- 
stocking by  keeping  the  geldings  off  some  of  them  and 
putting  the  mares  when  possible  in  meadows  or  outlying 
grass.  I  have  seen  in  the  West  large  bands  of  draft 
mares  turned  in  alfalfa  meadows  with  grass  pastures 
adjacent  and  they  foaled  well  and  the  colts  throve.  Wide 
pastures  for  pregnant  mares  seems  the  safe  rule.  Pas- 
ture of  some  kind  seems  most  essential.  Mares  confined 


TETHERING    ON    GRASS 


337 


338  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

to  the  stable  with  no  access  to  grass  seldom  drop  strong 
foals. 

Pasturing  by  Tethering. — In  France,  the  Channel 
Islands,  Denmark  and  other  countries  of  Europe  it  is 
common  practice  to  tether  cows  and  horses  (the  latter 
more  rarely)  in  pastures,  letting  them  eat  the  grass  clean 
as  they  advance.  Twice  daily  the  tethering  stakes  are 
taken  up  and  moved  forward,  maybe  no  more  than  a 
foot  and  maybe  two  feet  or  more,  depending  on  the 
length  of  the  tethering  chain  and  the  quality  of  the  grass. 
The  practice  is  a  good  one  where  labor  is  cheap  enough 
to  give  the  animals  attention  and  where  the  climate  per- 
mits. Water  is  taken  to  the  cows  in  some  instances ;  in 
other  places  they  are  led  away  to  water.  This  system 
insures  even  pasturing  of  all  the  land  and  the  deposition 
of  the  manure  where  made.  I  do  not  think  that  we  are 
ready  to  adopt  it  yet  in  America  except  in  places  where 
dairy  cows  are  kept,  pastures  are  rich  and  there  is  labor 
enough  to  give  them  attention.  In  Denmark  I  have  seen 
ewes  tethered  behind  the  cows,  eating  what  they  had 
left,  while  their  lambs  running  free  went  forward  and 
ate  what  pleased  them.  The  results  were  good,  as  all  the 
animals  throve,  though  I  should  suppose  that  the  cows 
would  ordinarily  leave  too  little  to  keep  the  ewes  well. 

The  Hurdling  System. — The  visitor  to  rural  England 
is  amazed  to  see  the  wonderful  flocks  of  sheep  kept 
often  on  comparatively  little  land.  I  have  seen  2,500 
Hampshire  sheep  kept  on  1,400  acres  of  fairly  good  land 
in  England.  Most  of  these  sheep  were  in  hurdles.  Brief- 
ly, the  hurdling  system  is  this :  The  farmer  has  panels 
of  movable  fence;  in  England  they  are  commonly  made 


THE    HURDLING    SYSTEM  339 

of  small  round  poles  and  twigs ;  here  they  could  easily  be 
made  of  light  wood  which  should  be  creosoted.  He 
encloses  an  acre,  more  or  less,  of  'good  forage  which 
may  He  of  pasture  grass,  vetches,  rape  or  a  mixture  of 
forage  crop.  In  this  enclosure  sheep  are  penned  until 
they  have  eaten  the  land  nearly  bare.  It  is  common  prac- 
tice to  enclose  enough  so  that  it  is  eaten  off  daily,  so 
that  each  evening  the  flock  is  given  fresh  pasturage.  If 
there  are  lambs,  two  enclosures  are  made,  and  through 
creeps  the  lambs  are  allowed  to  "go  forward"  into  the 
enclosure  farthest  into  to  the  field,  the  ewes  remaining 
behind  but  being  turned  the  next  day  where  the  lambs 
had  been,  while  the  lambs  again  go  forward  to  fresh 
grazing.  There  is  no  better  manner  than  this  of  feeding 
off  stuff,  if  one  has  time  to  attend  the  sheep  and  move 
the  hurdles.  In  America  there  is  often  sorrje  need  of 
shade,  also,  which  can  often  be  best  afforded  by  letting 
the  flock  come  at  10  o'clock  to  the  cool  barn  sheds,  which 
should  be  airy  and  clean.  At  3  they  would  go  again  to 
their  hurdles.  Temporary  shelters  from  the  sun  are 
also  used  in  America;  even  tents  have  been  in  use,  but 
they  are  troublesome  and  subject  to  windstorms.  In  a 
system  of  feeding  off  crops  by  hurdling  there  is  little 
waste,  small  danger  of  the  animals  becoming  parasitic, 
and  thus  the  greatest  bloom  and  health  are  seen  in  the 
flock.  It  is  a  system  practiced  by  some  well-known  ram 
breeders  in  the  United  States,  and  with  the  best  results. 
After  the  land  has  been  eaten  over  it  is  common  in 
England  to  plow  it  and  sow  to  Swede  turnips,  crimson 
clover,  winter  vetches  or  some  other  quick-growing  crop 
for  later  use. 


340  MEADOWS   AND    PASTURES 

Sheep  on  Permanent  Pastures. — Sheep  in  the  West 
have  few  diseases  apart  from  starvation  and  predatory 
animals.  In  eastern  pastures  they  find  enemies  far  more 
deadly  and  insidious,  the  internal  parasites.  He  who 
conquers  the  parasite  has  nothing  else  to  fear  in  sheep- 
farming;  the  other  problems  are  simple  and  easy.  The 
history  of  the  stomach  worm,  the  parasite  creating  the 
worst  ravages  in  American  flocks,  is  briefly  this :  It  is  a 
small  worm  about  Y^'  long  inhabiting  the  fourth  stomach 
of  the  sheep  or  lamb.  It  causes  anaemia  or  bloodlessness, 
disordered  digestion,  scours,  constipation  and  in  lambs 
death  and  in  old  sheep  emaciation.  The  worms  live  from 
year  to  year  in  the  bodies  of  the  old  ewes;  their  eggs 
are  deposited  on  the  ground,  hatch  and  the  small  worms 
develop  and  crawl  up  a  little  way  on  the  green  grass. 
Lambs  eating  them  become  afflicted  and  a  whole  train 
of  terrible  consequences  ensues. 

Stomach  worms  have  done  more  to  deprive  eastern 
pastures  of  sheep  than  all  other  causes  combined.  There 
are  certain  things  that  will  decrease  their  work.  Re- 
membering that  ewes  carry  over  the  germs,  one  can  con- 
fine ewes  and  lambs  to  the  dry  lot  and  barn  until  the 
lambs  are  old  enough  to  wean.  If  the  ewes  are  bred 
for  early  lambing  the  lambs  will  be  old  enough  to  wean 
by  the  time  grass  is  sweet  and  strong.  The  lambs  may 
then  be  taken  to  fresh  pasture  with  no  old  sheep  mixed 
with  them.  If  the  pasture  had  in  it  no  sheep  at  all  for 
12  months  or  more  all  the  better.  Thus  treated  lambs 
will  commonly  be  clean  and  thrifty.  There  is  little  dan- 
ger of  infestation  in  dry  lots,  though  one  should  early 
treat  scouring  ewes  with  worm-eradicating  medicine.  One 


TOBACCO  FOR  SHEEP  ON  GRASS  341 

and  a  half  ounces  or  more  of  coaltar  dip  diluted  with  6 
ounces  of  water  and  administered  to  a  ewe  is  said 
effectually  to  rid  her  of  stomach  worms.  Scouring  ewes 
may  infect  through  soiling  of  the  teats.  Some  shepherds 
practice  separating  the  ewes  and  lambs  each  day,  put- 
ting them  together  in  the  yard  at  night  and  the  ewes  in 
one  field  and  the  lambs  in  another.  This  has  given  clean 
and  thrifty  lambs. 

Sown  Pastures  for  Sheep. — The  most  practical  thing 
perhaps  is  to  use  only  sown  pastures  for  sheep.  There 
seems  little  danger  of  infestation  when  ewes  and  lambs 
graze  rape  or  red  clover  or  oats  or  vetches.  The  reason 
for  this  immunity  is  probably  that  the  animals  do  not 
graze  so  close  to  the  ground  as  when  on  bluegrass  or 
other  permanent  grasses,  so  do  not  so  readily  take  in  the 
worms  or  germs.  Even  here  there  is  fear  lest  the  sheep 
have  access  to  small  plots  of  old  grass,  maybe  along 
fences  or  in  yards  to  which  they  are  given  access  and 
which  though  small  in  extent  may  infect  all  the  grazing 
animals.  When  one  is  turning  to  fresh  and  clean  pas- 
ture one  must  strictly  avoid  letting  animals  have  access 
to  old  and  infected  spots. 

Feeding  Tobacco  to  Sheep  on  Pasture. — Tobacco  feed- 
ing has  come  into  favor  and  seems  to  have  much  merit. 
Tobacco  will  not  always  eradicate  worms  in  a  sheep, 
but  it  will  often  serve  to  prevent  their  lodgement.  One 
can  use  stems  or  "trash"  or  any  waste  tobacco.  There 
is  no  fear  of  their  eating  too  much ;  they  should  be  given 
all  that  they  will  take.  I  have  found  that  to  dip  the  to- 
bacco in  not  very  strong  salt  water,  taking  out  at  once 
and  putting  it  in  boxes  where  the  sheep  can  have  access  to 


342  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

it  and  feeding  no  other  salt,  is  an  effectual  way  of  get- 
ting them  to  eat  a  good  deal  of  tobacco.  Some  will 
naturally  eat  more  than  others.  I  have  testimony  from 
many  men  that  this  treatment  has  been  most  helpful. 
Where  tobacco  dust  is  fed,  one  may  sprinkle  it  lightlty 
with  salt  to  encourage  sheep  to  eat  a  good  deal  of  it. 

Management  Insuring  Healthy  Flocks. — Two  men  in 
America  fought  stomach  worms  all  through  the  disastrous 
years  of  the  QO'S,  when  little  was  known  to  help;  they 
found  light,  they  conquered  the  pests  in  a  measure,  and 
kept  on  keeping  sheep  and  studying  flock  management. 
Finally  each  made  a  journey  to  England  and  studied  the 
conditions  there  with  a  view  to  solving  the  problem  for 
America.  There  they  found  hurdling  the  best  answer 
to  the  question.  Independently  of  each  other  they  reached 
the  same  conclusions  as  to  the  practical  solution  of  the 
question  in  America.  Dr.  H.  B.  Arbuckle  of  West  Vir- 
ginia and  the  writer  were  the  two  men.  But  they  wish 
to  give  all  due  credit  to  the  Department  of  Zoology  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  at  Washington  for  at 
least  giving  accurate  details  of  the  history  of  the  Hsemon- 
chus  contortus  (formerly  called  Strongylus  contortus), 
for  without  the  details  that  we  now  have  no  certain  plan 
could  have  been  formulated.  The  basis  of  this  plan  is 
the  fact  that  lambs  are  born  free  from  parasitic  infection; 
they  are  healthy.  It  is  only  necessary  to  keep  them 
healthy  by  preventing  infection.  Their  mothers  carry 
over  in  their  bodies  the  germs  that  will  infect  them  in 
the  form  of  mature  stomach  worms,  which  when  ripe 
pass  away  in  the  droppings  and  thus  infest  the  pasture. 
When  the  temperature  is  below  40°  F.  the  eggs  will  not 


SHEPHERDING  AND  PASTURING  343 

hatch.  When  it  is  above  that  they  will  hatch  out  in  a 
few  hours  or  in  a  week  or  so,  depending  upon  how  warm 
it  is.  Freezing  or  drying  soon  kills  the  unhatched  eggs. 
So  it  is  seen  that  ewes  will  not  pollute  a  field  in  winter, 
their  droppings  are  sure  to  be  soon  frozen,  at  least  in 
the  region  where  sheep  are  mostly  kept.  But  if  the  tiny 
worm  hatches  from  the  egg  it  feeds  for  a  time  upon  the 
material  of  the  manure  and  continues  to  grow  till  it  is 
about  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  long.  Then  it  creeps  up 
on  a  blade  of  grass  and  waits  to  be  swallowed  by  some 
kmb,  after  that  it  finishes  its  growth  within  the  fourth 
stomach  of  the  lamb,  and,  incidentally,  finishes  the  lamb 
as  well.  The  ewe  flock  should  be  treated  for  stomach 
worms.  -This  is  best  done  in  the  fall,  when  they  come 
from  pasture.  It  may  be  again  done  in  the  spring  before 
their  lambs  come.  The  use  of  some  of  the  coaltar  dips, 
in  small  doses,  much  diluted,  will  eventually  be  recog- 
nized as  most  efficient.  This  treatment  alone  has  doubled 
the  weight  of  lambs  in  some  experiments  in  Kentucky. 
Next,  the  flock  should  at  the  approach  of  spring  weather 
be  confined  to  the  yard  and  shed.  There  are  two  reasons 
for  this :  it  is  better  for  the  grass,  and  thus  in  the  long 
run  better  for  the  flock,  and  there  is  no  contamination  of 
land  over  which  the  lambs  will  later  feed.  If  it  were 
possible  wholly  to  eradicate  the  worms  from  the  ewes 
by  treatment  this  care  would  not  be  needed,  but  unfortu- 
nately it  seems  almost  impossible  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge to  kill  all  of  the  worms  by  any  medication.'  While 
confined  to  the  yard  the  lambs  will  probably  be  born.  It 
is  essential  that  the  flock  be  well  fed  at  this  time,  so  that 
the  ewes  will  be  full  of  milk.  If  desired  they  may  be 


344  MEADOWS   AND    PASTURES 

provided  a  run  to  a  rye-field,  or  to  some  grass  pasture 
that  will  not  be  afterwards  used  that  summer,  to  help 
stimulate  the  milk  flow.  By  May  15  probably  the  grass 
will  be  so  forward  that  the  flock  may  be  turned  out  for 
good.  Now  begins  the  new  management. 

Instead  of  turning  the  flock  to  a  large  pasture  to 
roam  over  it  at  will  turn  them  on  a  very  small  part  of 
it.  How  best  to  manage  this  will  depend  on  circum- 
stances. I  think  that  in  our  land  of  small  supply  of 
labor  and  much  hurry  and  turmoil  during  the  summer 
season  it  is  safest  to  divide  the  pastures  by  permanent 
wire  fences.  These  are  not  costly,  and  need  not  be  very 
high.  We  will,  then,  turn  the  whole  flock  together  into 
the  first  division;  none  shall  be  scattered  about.  Of 
course  there  may  be  two  flocks,  one  with  lambs  and  a 
dry  flock,  but  the  dry  flock  had  better  be  put  apart 
somewhere  or  else  put  with  the  ewes.  It  will  not  do  to 
let  anything  interfere  with  the  regular  rotation  of  these 
pastures.  Now  once  in  this  pasture  the  flock  will  be  al- 
lowed to  eat  it  down  close  to  the  ground.  That  will  not 
hurt  the  grass,  for  all  will  go  in  a  short  time  and  the 
grass  may  spring  up  again.  This  is  how  pastures  are 
often  managed  in  England  by  hurdles. 

Dr.  Ransom  says  that  sheep  may  probably  be  safely 
left  on  May  pasture  for  two  weeks.  We  will  shorten 
this  time  to  10  days,  to  make  sure.  That  is,  the  germs 
falling  to  the  earth  could  not  before  10  days  find  their 
way  back  into  any  sheep  or  lamb,  and  we  are  going  to 
move  the  flock  on  before  they  are  able  to  get  in.  Now 
in  the  division  between  this  pasture  and  the  next  we  will 
place  creeps  so  fixed  that  the  lambs  can  readily  pass 


SHEEP   PARASITES   IN   GRASS  345 

through  to  the  next  enclosure.  This  they  will  early  learn 
to  do,  and  so  they  will  be  eating  the  fresher  parts  of  the 
herbage  in  advance  of  the  ewes.  In  10  days  then  the 
whole  flock  will  go  forward  one  pasture,  the  lambs  yet 
having  access  to  the  fresher  feeding  on  ahead.  Doctor 
Ransom  says  we  shall  need  for  this  sure  treatment  the 
following  divisions:  For  May,  2  pastures;  for  June,  4 
pastures ;  for  July,  4  pastures ;  for  August,  4  pastures ;  for 
September,  3  pastures;  for  October,  2  pastures.  That 
makes  19  enclosures  in  all  and  insures  that  the  flock  shall 
be  kept  in  absolute  freedom  from  infections  throughout 
the  year.  However,  one  will  not  absolutely  need  so  many 
enclosures  as  that.  By  June  many  of  the  lambs  will  be 
ripe,  by  July  many  of  the  others,  and  even  when  the  lambs 
are  born  late,  when  managed  in  this  way  they  should  all  be 
ripe  as  peaches  by  the  middle  of  August.  After  the  lambs 
are  gone  the  ewes  can  be  managed  a  little  less  carefully, 
especially  if  they  are  in  strong  condition,  though  there  is 
a  comfort  in  knowing  that  every  stomach  worm  germ 
that  falls  to  the  earth  must  die  from  lack  of  a  host. 

To  make  this  thing  doubly  successful  put  flat-bot- 
tomed troughs  in  the  pastures  ahead,  where  the  lambs 
run,  and  put  feed  in  them ;  any  sort  of  grain,  corn,  oats, 
barley,  bran,  coarse-ground  or  broken  cake  or  oilmeal. 
Thus  the  lambs  will  grow  like  weeds  and  pay  many 
times  over  for  their  grain.  Thus  more  sheep  may  be 
carried  on  the  same  ground  than  would  be  possible  under 
ordinary  treatment.  There  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the 
number  of  sheep  that  can  be  safely  kept  on  an  eastern 
farm  under  this  system  of  management.  The  limit  is, 
of  course,  the  size  of  the  farm  and  the  amount  of  grass, 


346  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Even  this  can  be  greatly  helped  by  soiling.  Racks  may 
with  great  profit  be  placed  in  the  fields  and  the  ewes  fed 
with  green  crops,  fresh  mown  oats,  peas,  clover  or  alfalfa. 
Thus  twice  as  many  ewes  may  be  kept  as  the  grass  alone 
will  support.  I  suggest  that  about  400  ewes  would  keep 
one  man  nicely  busy  in  caring  for  them  and  their  lambs, 
hauling  water  to  them,  soiling  somewhat,  and  feeding 
the  lambs.  I  would  not  hesitate  to  undertake  the  man- 
agement of  400  ewes  on  one  farm  in  any  part  of  the 
cornbelt,  the  regions  most  infested  with  stomach  worms. 
There  is  no  business  more  sure  of  profit  than  this.  Lambs 
sell  remarkably  well  and  the  prospect  is  that  as  the  west- 
ern ranges  are  diminished  they  will  sell  better,  for  the 
ravages  of  the  stomach  worm  deter  eastern  farmers  from 
going  into  the  business.  The  two  serious  obstacles  to  be 
overcome  are:  first,  the  question  of  water  and  next, 
the  question  of  shade.  Water  is  readily  hauled  in  mount- 
ed tanks  as  it  is  usually  in  England.  Shade  is  not  abso- 
lutely essential.  I  have  seen  very  fat  sheep  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  of  California  confined  to  the  alfalfa  mea- 
dows and  with  no  shade  whatever.  Probably  a  system 
of  canvas  sheds,  long  and  narrow,  would  not  be  very 
expensive  nor  too  troublesome  for  one  man  to  move 
and  set  up  unaided.  Any  sort  of  grass  will  serve.  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass  is  to  be  preferred,  perhaps  brome  grass 
is  better,  clovers  may  be  utilized  and  oats  sown  to  be 
grazed  off,  with  peas. 

I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  I  look  forward  to  seeing 
many  sheep  farms  established  in  the  cornbelt,  each  carry- 
ing from  200  to  500  ewes  and  managed  nearly  under  this 
system.  I  feel  confident  that  no  other  branch  of  hus- 


NODULAR  DISEASE  IN  SHEEP  347 

bandry  holds  forth  better  prospects.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  earlier  the  lambs  are  born  the  sooner 
they  will  be  gone  to  market,  and  thus  the  fewer  pastures 
will  be  needed.  Also  the  market  is  usually  best  in  June 
and  July,  after  a  flood  of  fed  lambs  has  passed  and  be- 
fore the  new  crop  from  the  ranges  has  started  to  come. 
Besides  the  stomach  worm  there  is  the  worm  that  makes 
the  nodular  disease  of  the  intestines.  Any  observant 
man  who  has  dissected  a  mature  sheep  has  often  noticed 
on  the  small  intestines  little  nodules  or  "knots."  These 
are  really  small  tumors,  filled  with  a  greenish,  cheesy 
substance.  They  do  not  do  much  harm  when  they  are 
few  in  number  but  the  trouble  is  a  cumulative  one  and 
the  numbers  of  the  nodules  increase  until  after  a  time 
digestion  and  absorption  are  much  interfered  with.  Some- 
times parts  of  the  intestines  become  calcified;  that  is,  so 
impregnated  with  lime  salts  that  they  are  almost  like 
stone.  Death  ensues  in  a  longer  or  shorter  time  from 
the  nodular  disease.  It  does  not  work  quickly  as  does 
the  disease  caused  by  the  stomach  worm.  The  worm 
causing  these  tumors  is  called  cesophagostoma  columbi- 
anum. 

Nodular  disease  is  difficult  to  cure,  if  indeed  it  is  pos- 
sible to  cure  it  at  all  after  it  is  established.  Prevention 
is  about  all  that  one  can  do.  Dr.  W.  H.  Dalrymple  of 
the  Louisiana  station  has  shown,  however,  that  it  is  read- 
ily communicable  from  affected  ewes  to  their  lambs 
through  the  medium  of  the  pasture.  He  has  also  demon- 
strated that  where  diseased  ewes  are  kept  confined  to  the 
barn  and  their  lambs  allowed  to  run  on  clean  pasture 
not  contaminated  by  the  presence  of  any  old  sheep,  the 


348  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

lambs  remain  healthy  and  thus  a  new  healthy  stock  can 
be  had  even  from  a  diseased  flock.  None  of  these  dis- 
eases originates  spontaneously.  There  are  no  other 
known  hosts  of  these  diseases  than  sheep,  goats  and  per- 
haps deer,  so  it  is  merely  a  question  of  starting  with  the 
lambs,  born  free  of  all  parasites,  and  keeping  them  in 
health  by  putting  them  on  fresh  and  uninfected  pasture. 
This  insures  freedom  from  these  devitalizing  pests. 

Feeding  Sheep  and  Lambs  on  Pasture. — There  is  often 
good  profit  in  feeding  western  lambs  or  natives  on  grass 
in  the  spring,  summer  or  fall.  At  this  art  some  men 
succeed  admirably;  others  fail  lamentably.  The  keynote 
of  success  is  to  put  the  troughs  in  a  small  yard  which 
may  be  moved  from  time  to  time  as  the  land  gets  foul. 
When  grain  is  put  in  the  troughs  the  sheep  must  be  ex- 
cluded; afterward  all  must  be  brought  in.  It  will  not 
do  to  depend  on  their  intelligence  or  memory;  pigs  can 
be  called  to  feed  and  will  all  come,  but  this  is  not  so  as 
to  sheep  or  lambs,  as  a  rule.  The  shepherd  must  see 
that  every  one  comes  to  its  feed  and  that  none  goes 
away  until  the  feed  is  all  consumed.  Sheep  are  imitative 
animals  and  if  one  leaves  its  feed  others  may  follow,  let- 
ting those  that  remain  have  a  chance  to  overeat. 

Feeding  Sucking  Lambs  on  Pasture. — I  have  found 
great  profit  from  feeding  young  lambs  corn  on  the  grass 
in  April,  May  and  June,  as  one  would  feed  pigs.  I  would 
fence  a  place  so  that  the  ewes  could  not  get  in  or  else 
give  the  lambs  access  through  creeps  to  a  pasture  from 
which  the  ewes  were  excluded  and  feed  them  ear  corn, 
simply  throwing  it  down  on  clean  grass  and  letting  them 
shell  it  as  pigs  shell  corn,  This  mingling  of  succulent 


ALFALFA   AND  SHEEP  349 

green  grass,  mothers'  milk  and  good  sound  corn  produces 
very  rapid  gains. 

Alfalfa  Pasture  for  Sheep. — For  many  years  it  was 
common  practice  with  us  to  turn  ewes  and  lambs  on 
alfalfa  pasture.  Great  profit  resulted  from  this  prac- 
tice with  some  little  loss.  Commonly  about  2  per  cent 
to  4  per  cent  of  the  animals  turned  on  alfalfa  would 
die  during  the  season,  though  there  were  years  with 
less  than  i  per  cent  of  loss.  We  learned  the  following 
points :  The  alfalfa  should  always  have  grasses  mixed 
through  it.  Timothy,  brome  grass,  bluegrass  and  even 
oats  or  wheat  drilled  in  will  serve.  When  thus  mixed  it 
is  not  nearly  so  apt  to  cause  bloat  as  when  fed  pure. 
The  animals  should  be  kept  off  until  the  alfalfa  has 
reached  a  good  growth,  almost  to  the  blooming  stage. 
They  should  be  filled  with  other  feed  before  being  turned 
on,  and  the  best  time  for  turning  on  is  at  about  10 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  After  they  are  once  filled  with 
alfalfa  they  must  not  be  taken  off,  not  even  for  a  half 
day,  nor  at  night,  nor  when  it  rains.  Their  safety  de- 
pends on  their  never  again  getting  very  hungry  for  al- 
falfa, but  on  their  having  it  always  before  them  and 
mfxed  with  grasses  that  they  may  eat  alternately.  The 
meadow  should  never  be  fully  stocked,  but  the  mower 
should  run  over  it  twice  during  the  season  and  the  sur- 
plus alfalfa  made  into  hay.  It  may  be  wise  not  to  mow 
it  all  off  at  one  time.  The  practical  disadvantage  that 
we  found  was  that  the  ewes  thus  treated  would  quite 
often  become  barren,  probably  from  over- fatness,  but 
the  lambs  throve  wonderfully  and  remained  quite  free 
from  internal  parasites. 


350  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Feeding  Colts  on  Pasture. — In  Kentucky,  in  the  best 
of  bluegrass  pastures,  men  growing  Thoroughbred  colts 
commonly  feed  them  oats  while  suckling  their  dams. 
This  is  accomplished  by  putting  railed  enclosures  about 
large  troughs;  the  rails  are  low  enough  to  exclude  the 
mares  and  high  enough  to  allow  the  foals  to  go  to  their 
feed.  Thus  pushed  the  colts  grow  splendidly  and  reach 
probably  the  maximum  development  of  which  they  are 
capable.  In  France  I  have  observed  that  very  often 
draft  colts  are  given  the  best  of  pastures  and  liberal 
feeding  of  oats  or  oats  and  bran  besides.  This  is  good 
for  the  colts  and  good  for  the  pastures  as  well. 

Pasturing  Cattle. — It  is  wise  to  keep  cattle  off  grass 
until  it  has  become  sweet  and  good.  This  is  best  for 
the  pasture  and  best  for  the  cattle.  When  at  last  they  go 
to  grass  much  can  be  done  to  aid  them  in  making  good 
gains.  One  of  the  easiest  and  most  useful  of  practices 
is  to  place  large  portable  racks  in  the  pasture  and  place 
in  them  green  forage,  alfalfa,  clover,  or  whatever  may 
be  most  convenient.  The  cattle  will  consume  a  great 
deal  of  this  without  neglecting  their  grazing.  Cattle 
are  too  indolent  to  fill  by  grazing  as  full  as  they  should 
be,  this  especially  in  warm  climates.  By  means  of  this 
half-soiling  system  the  pasture  is  rapidly  enriched  and 
made  to  support  many  more  animals  than  it  otherwise 
would.  Cattle  will  also  eat  a  great  deal  of  dry  hay 
or  even  bright  wheatstraw  or  oatstraw  when  on  clover 
pasture,  and  stacks  may  be  thus  devoured  with  much 
profit  right  in  the  pastures.  There  is  great  profit  in 
feeding  green  corn,  stalks,  blades  and  ears,  to  cattle  in 
the  fall.  Throw  it  on  grass  or  feed  it  in  racks.  If  f .  1 


SALTING   STOCK   ON    GRASS  351 

judiciously  on  good  pasture  the  gains  are  probably  more 
rapid  than  under  any  other  system.  When  cold  weather 
comes  on  if  the  cattle  have  been  well  chosen  they  are 
ready  to  go  to  market.  There  is  profit  to  animals  and 
to  grass  in  feeding  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  or  cake  on 
grass.  The  manure  from  meal  or  cake  fed  animals  is 
richer  than  when  they  are  fed  corn  and  the  grass  re- 
sponds well.  It  is  more  profitable  commonly  to  feed  corn 
with  the  meals. 

Giving  Salt  on  Pasture. — Ordinarily  it  is  unwise  to 
limit  animals  in  their  consumption  of  salt.  After  they 
have  become  accustomed  to  salt  by  having  been  "salted" 
for  several  days  in  succession  one  may  as  well  fill  a 
strong  box  in  some  place  where  rain  will  not  leach  it 
away  with  coarse  cheap  salt,  one  sort  being  about  as 
good  as  another.  When  barrel  salt  is  cheapest  one  may 
as  well  roll  a  barrel  into  one's  shed  and  cutting  a  liberal 
good-sized  hole  in  its  side  allow  the  animals  to  go  to  it 
at  will.  If  there  is  danger  of  bloating  from  too  much 
succulent  alfalfa  or  red  clover  in  pasture,  slaked  lime  add- 
ed to  the  salt  is  said  to  lessen  the  trouble.  Pure  bone- 
meal  (it  is  made  especially  for  feeding  animals)  should 
be  mixed  with  salt  wherever  there  is  lime-deficiency  in 
the  soil.  Put  in  several  pounds  of  bonemeal  to  one  pound 
of  salt. 

Making  Export  Steers  on  Grass. — There  are  parts  of 
the  Virginias  and  some  other  states  devoted  largely  to 
making  steers  for  English  markets  to  which  they  are 
sent  alive.  It  requires  for  making  export  steers  good 
grass,  good  water  and  suitable  climate.  It  is  notable 
that  mountain  pastures  though  somewhat  less  luxuriant 


352  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

make  more  fat  than  do  lush  pastures  in  the  cornbelt 
Once  the  cattle  making  export  steers  were  all  raised 
from  Short-horn  cows  kept  in  the  neighborhood  or  in 
nearby  counties.  Now  they  are  many  of  them  brought 
from  western  ranches,  especially  from  the  Panhandle 
region  in  Texas.  The  cattle  go  to  grass  when  yearlings 
and  are  fed  during  their  first  winter  on  cornstalks  with 
a  few  small  ears  of  corn.  Some  graziers  feed  consider- 
able corn  as  grass  starts  green  in  spring,  though  it  is  not 
a  common  practice  since  not  much  corn  is  grown  in  that 
region.  During  the  season  they  are  given  as  good  pas- 
turage as  possible,  care  being  taken  not  to  crowd  or  over- 
stock them.  They  are  fat  in  September,  October  and  No- ' 
vember  and  are  sent  direct  to  the  seaports  and  thence 
to  England.  The  cattle  are  not  when  sold  as  fat  as 
cornfed  cattle,  but  are  such  as  command  good  prices 
on  the  markets  of  Great  Britain.  After  the  export  steers 
have  gone  to  market  there  is  often  left  much  grass  that 
is  taken  by  youngsters  following  them.  There  is  often 
very  good  profit  in  making  export  steers.  Sometimes 
more  than  $10  per  acre  is  received  for  the  grass  that 
they  have  eaten.  Only  the  bluegrasses  have  been  found 
suitable  for  making  export  steers. 

LETTERS  FROM  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

Before  writing  this  book  I  addressed  letters  to  the 
directors  of  all  experiment  stations  in  America,  and  to 
those  of  several  foreign  lands,  asking  for  information  as 
to  what  grasses,  clovers  and  other  plants  were  in  suc- 
cessful use  in  their  respective  states,  and  asking  them  to 
mention  the  few  that  seemed  in  highest  regard,  The 


GRASSES  IN  ALABAMA  353 

following  replies  seem  to  have  so  much  interest  and 
merit  that  they  weH  deserve  space  herein,  and  I  only 
regret  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  in  some  instances 
to  abbreviate  them. 

ALABAMA.— Prof.  J.  F.  Duggar,  Director  of  the  Alabama  Experi- 
ment Station  of  Auburn : 

Bermuda  Grass. — This  is  more  generally  used  than  any  other 
grass  as  summer  pasturage  throughout  the  cottonbelt.  On  the 
whole  it  is  the  most  valauble  pasturage  plant  of  the  South.  It  can 
be  propagated  with  greatest  certainty  by  the  use  of  rootstocks 
dropped  in  checks  2x3  feet  and  at  any  time  from  February  to 
June.  It  can  also  be  propagated  by  seed,  but  the  germination  of  the 
seed  is  sometimes  poor  and  there  is  also  danger  of  the  stand  being 
poor  by  reason  of  rain  and  baking  sun  soon  after  the  date  of  plant- 
ing. There  may  well  be  combined  with  Bermuda,  lespedeza  for  sum- 
mer pasturage,  and  bur  clover  for  winter  pasturage. 

Carpet  Grass. — Carpet  grass  is  probably  next  to  Bermuda  in 
value  as  a  summer  pasturage  grass  for  the  region  to  which  it  is 
adapted,  namely,  the  southern  half  of  the  cottonbelt.  It  is  most 
useful  on  low  or  damp  sandy  areas  and  is  especially  resistent-to 
an  acid  or  water-logged  condition  of  the  soil.  It  is  of  slight 
value  on  the  dry  hills.  It  is  superior  to  Bermuda  on  the  low- 
lands, to  \vhich  it  is  adapted,  its  superiority  consisting  in  remain- 
ing green  later  in  the  fall  or  winter  and  the  greater  ease  with 
which,  when  desired,  it  can  be  eradicated.  Propagation  is  most 
certain  by  means  of  portions  of  the  old  plants.  This  plant  seeds 
poorly  but  is  sometimes  spread  by  cutting  the  seed  stems  for  hay 
and  spreading  this  over  the  land  to  be  seeded. 

Orchard  Grass. — This  is  of  limited  suitability  and  is  only  avail- 
able for  soils  naturally  fertile  and  well-drained  or  else  soils  that 
have  been  improved  by  rotation  of  crops  and  good  farming.  It  is 
of  more  value  in  the  Northern  than  in  the  Southern  half  of  the 
cottonbelt,  but  even  in  that  region  it  is  not  of  universal  adapta- 
bility. Its  chief  value  of  course  is  for  pasturage,  for  which  pur- 
pose it  may  well  be  combined  with  lespedeza  or  with  other 
clovers  and  grasses. 

Red  Top  Grass. — This  is  suited  to  the  moist  lowlands  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  cottonbelt  when  the  purpose  is  pas- 


354  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

turage.  The  best  time  for  sowing  is  the  latter  part  of  September 
or  early  part  of  October.  It  is  not  unfavorably  affected  by  acidity 
of  the  soil. 

Cow  peas. — The  cowpea  must  be  ranked  as  the  legume  of  first 
importance  in  the  South.  Its  chief  value  is  as  a  hay  plant  and  a 
soil-improving  crop.  It  is  also  valuable  for  the  production  of 
seed  and  for  pasturage.  The  pasturage  season  is  very  short  and 
as  a  rule  the  crop  is  used  for  pasturage  only  incidentally,  for 
example,  when  live  stock  is  turned  into  a  cornfield  where  cow- 
peas  have  grown  as  a  catch-crop  between  the  corn  rows. 

Lespedeza. — This  is  adapted  to  almost  every  grade  of  soil  and 
to  the  entire  range  of  climate  throughout  the  cottonbelt.  It  is 
useful  almost  exclusively  for  pasturage,  although  on  very  rich 
land  in  seasons  of  abundant  rainfall  it  grows  tall  enough  to  be 
mowed,  when  it  makes  a  grade  of  hay  equal  to  alfalfa.  This  is 
an  annual,  which,  however,  reseeds  freely,  even  when  closely 
grazed.  When  first  introduced  into  a  field  the  seed  should  be  sown 
on  prepared  land  in  February  or  March,  either  among  the  grow- 
ing oats  or  alone,  using  about  one  bushel  per  acre  of  the  seed 
still  in  the  hull.  Lespedeza  should  form  a  part  of  practically  all 
pasture  mixtures  for  the  South. 

Bur  Clover. — This  is  a  winter-growing  annual  legume  which 
reseeds  itself,  provided  it  be  lightly  grazed,  or  not  grazed  at 
all,  during  the  period  of  seed  formation  in  April  and  May.  The 
seed  of  the  southern  variety  is  obtainable  only  in  the  bur;  that  is, 
uncleaned.  In  this  condition  it  requires  no  inoculation  on  any 
soil,  but  requires  very  early  sowing,  preferably  in  August,  so 
as  to  give  time  for  the  rotting  of  the  burs.  Seed  of  the  California 
variety  may  be  obtained  either  in  the  bur  or  in  the  threshed  con- 
dition, both  kinds  of  California  clover  seed  apparently  requiring 
inoculation  on  most  southern  soils.  Here  again  the  burs  need  to  be 
sown  early,  but  the  threshed  seed  may  be  sown  a  month  later,  or 
in  September.  Inoculating  soil  for  bur  clover  is  obtained  from 
an  old  field  of  bur  clover  or  of  alfalfa. 

Hairy  Vetch. — This  annual  winter-growing  legume  is  useful  either 
for  hay  or  pasturage,  and  also  for  soil-improvement  It  is  best 
grown  in  combination  with  either  oats  or  wheat,  the  mixture  be- 
ing cut  for  hay.  The  seed  may  be  sown  throughout  September 
and  October  in  most  parts  of  the  cottonbelt  and  the  hay  cut  in 
May.  Sow  about  one-half  bushel  of  vetch  seed  with  the  usual 


GRASSES  IN  ARKANSAS  355 

amount  of  oats  or  wheat.  On  most  soils  in  the  South  vetch  needs 
to  be  inoculated.  For  this  purpose  one  may  use  soil  from  a 
spot  in  the  garden  where  English  peas  have  grown  or  from  a 
field  of  any  kind  of  vetch. 

Crimson  Clover. — Crimson  clover  is  a  winter-growing  annual,  the 
seed  of  which  at  the  rate  of  15  to  20  pounds  per  acre  should  be 
sown  in  September  and  thoroughly  inoculated  with  soil  from  a 
field  where  either  crimson,  red,  white  or  Carolina  clover  has 
grown  and  produced  abundant  tubercles  the  year  before.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  among  the  growing  cotton  plants 
and  lightly  covered,  or,  when  hay-making  is  the  end  in  view,  the 
seed  may  be  sown  on  well-prepared  land.  This  plant  should  be 
cut  early  for  hay  to  avoid  the  danger  sometimes  reported  from 
the  use  of  over-ripe  hay.  This  danger  consists  in  the  formation 
of  balls  in  the  stomach  of  horses  from  the  matted  hair  that  de- 
velops around  the  ripening  seed.  The  pasture  season  of  crimson 
clover  is  comparatively  short.  Its  greatest  value  is  for  soil-im- 
provement. 

Soybeans. — This  plant  is  rapidly  growing  into  importance  in 
the  South,  but  has  not  yet  played  a  prominent  part  in  southern 
agriculture.  Probably  the  best  use  is  as  a  crop  to  be  hogged  off 
while  the  pods  are  forming  and  after  seed  formation  is  com- 
pleted. It  also  makes  a  nutritious,  though  rather  coarse  hay.  The 
plant  is  of  about  as  great  value  as  the  cowpea  for  soil-improve- 
ment, though  apparently  requiring  somewhat  better  land.  It  is 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils  and  of  climate.  The  foregoing 
are  arranged  in  order  of  importance  as  I  conceive  their  rank. 

ARKANSAS. — Prof.  Martin  Nelson,  Agronomist  of  the  Arkansas 
Experiment  Station,  Fayetteville,  Ark. :  In  naming  the  grasses  that 
are  most  suited  to  Arkansas,  I  may  say,  first,  as  our  best  yielder 
for  hay  purposes  and  for  pasture  as  well,  I  will  name  Johnson 
grass.  I  am  aware  that  people  of  the  South  are  afraid  of  this 
grass,  but  not  all,  fortunately,  are  timid.  Johnson  grass  belongs 
to  the  Sorghum  family.  It  spreads  and  perpetuates  itself  not  only 
by  seed  but  by  a  jointed  rootstalk.  This  grass  puts  forth  a  vig- 
orous growth,  stands  drouth  well  and  can  be  cut  for  hay  several 
times  during  the  season.  The  yield  is  heavy.  The  same  charac- 
teristics that  make  it  suitable  for  meadow  make  it  suitable  for  pas- 
ture also.  The  other  grass  especially  adapted  to  this  state  is  Ber- 


356  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

muda  grass.     It  grows   thickly  and   makes   a  very   excellent  turf, 
tends  to  bind  loose  soil  with  a  close  turf  as  well  as  the  heavier 
soils.     It  is  the  favorite  grass  for  lawns  and  parks.     It  also  per- 
petuates itself  by  seeding  and  by  the  underground  system  of  root- 
stalk.     Its  character  of  growth  above  the  ground  is  that  of  many 
fine  stems  and  it  does  not  as  a  rule  grow  very  high,  seldom  reach- 
ing more  than  18"  or  20"  even  on  the  best  of  land.     It  does  not 
start  growing  early  nor  grow  very  late  because  it  is  a  hot-weather 
grass.     To  sow   for  pasture  or  meadow  purposes,  but  particularly 
for  pasture,  it  is  necessary  to  seed  other  grasses  or  clovers  with 
it   in   combination.     We   have   no   other  grass  that   will   stand   as 
much  drouth  as  the  Bermuda.    It  is  dreaded  by  many  of  our  farm- 
ers.    Foundation  for  this  fear  is  largely  imaginary.     We  must  ad- 
mit, however,  that  it  cannot  be  eradicated  by  wishing  it  to  be  gone. 
Other  grasses  that  are  pretty  well  adapted  to  this  state  I  will  name 
in  this  order :    Orchard  grass,  tall  meadow  oatgrass,  meadow  fescue 
and  redtop  and  timothy.     Clovers  have  not  been  given  much  of  a 
trial  in  this  state.    The  clover,  however,  that  has  demonstrated  that 
it  is  a  good  one  here  is  Japanese  clover,  which  comes  on  of  its 
own  accord,  both  on  lowland  and  upland.     Being  a  small  clover  it 
is  to  be  recommended  for  pasture  rather  than  for  meadow,  but  in 
the  bottom  lands  it  makes  very  excellent  hay  in  combination  with 
other  natural   grasses.     Another  clover,   commonly  termed  yellow 
clover   (Medicago  lupulina),  is  also  coming  in  of  its  own  accord 
and   demonstrating   that   it    is    adapted   to   our    conditions.     White 
clover  is  also  spreading  of  its  own  accord  over  the  entire  state.     I 
look  on  these  three  clovers  as  the.  most  promising  and  would  recom- 
mend that  white  clover  and  Japanese  clover  be  sown  in  combin- 
ation with  Bermuda  grass  for  permanent  pasture  and  with  John- 
son grass  also.     The  white  clover  will  produce  earlier  pasture  and 
late  pasture  while  the  Japanese  and  Bermuda  will  hold  out  during 
the   hot  weather  season.     Crimson  and  burr  clovers  thrive  under 
ideal  conditions  and  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to  our  climatic  con- 
ditions, though  they  are  both  annuals,  and  for  that  reason  do  not 
persist  as  we  should  like  to  have  them  do,  nor  are  they  first-class 
hay  plants.     Alsike  and  red  clover  grow  with  fair  success,  but  as 
yet  we  are   in  the  experimental   stage  with  most  of  the  clovers, 
and  find  that  while  they  give  first-class  results  in  one  locality  they 
may  fail  elsewhere.     While  alsike  or  red  clover  will  thrive  on  the 
poorest  soil,  alsike  is  especially  adapted  to  fairly  fertile  low-lying 


GRASSES  IN  DELAWARE  357 

soil  that  is  not  too  wet.    Red  clover  thrives  best  on  the  richer  soil, 
although    occasionally   is    found   doing   excellently   on    wetter    soil. 

DELAWARE. — Part  of  Bulletin  81 :  The  object  of  an  investigation 
was  to  determine  what  combinations  and  quantities  of  commercial 
fertilizers  could  be  most  profitably  applied  to  meadow  lands.  The 
experiment  was  planned  by  Director  Harry  Hayward.  In  the  spring 
of  1907  a  field  which  had  been  in  wheat  during  1906  and  sown  to 
grass,  was  divided  into  18  one-acre  plats.  The  stand  of  timothy 
was  not  heavy,  but  uniform,  since  it  had  been  sown  with  a  wheat 
drill.  The  fertilizers  were  applied  with  a  distributor  from  April 
26  to  May  2.  The  season  was  favorable,  and  the  grass  made  a 
good  growth.  Harvesting  began  July  5.  Each  plat  was  cut  and 
weighed  separately.  The  following  table  shows  the  treatments,  the 
increase  due  to  treatment,  cost  of  fertilizers,  and  the  profit  or  loss 
from  each  plat.  Plats  4  and  12  remained  as  checks — nothing  was 
applied.  It  will  be  noted  from  the  table  that  Plats  1,  2  and  3  re- 
ceived the  same  treatment,  except  in  the  amount  of  sodium  nitrate 
app'lied.  That  is,  Plat  2  received  twice  the  quantity  of  Plat  1,  and 
Plat  3  twice  the  quantity  of  Plat  2.  The  applications  of  sodium 
nitrate  were  thus  in  the  ratio  of  1,  2  and  4,  while  the  gain  from 
the  treatments  is  in  the  ratio  of  about  1,  2  and  3.  The  heavier  appli- 
cations— 320  pounds  of  nitrate — did  not  produce  a  proportional  in- 
crease. From  these  comparisons  we  are  led  to  the  belief  that  a 
considerable  quantity  of  nitrogen  may  be  applied  with  profit.  On 
Plats  2  and  3  the  net  profit  due  to  treatment  was  $8.52  and  $12.63 
respectively,  or  more  than  100  per  cent.  On  Plats  5,  6,  7  and  8 
the  treatments  are  the  same  in  kind  and  quantity,  except  that  the 
quantity  of  acid  phosphate  is  double  on  each  successive  plat.  In 
other  words,  acid  phosphate  was  applied  in  the  ratio  of  1,  2,  4  and 
8.  The  yields  of  these  plats  do  not  show  a  corresponding  ratio. 
The  fact  is,  Plat  5,  which  had  80  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  pro- 
duced more  hay  than  Plat  7,  which  had  320  pounds,  or  even  Plat 
8,  which  carried  640  pounds.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  quantity 
of  acid  phosphate  applied  had  but  little  effect  on  the  yield.  A 
profit  was  made  on  each  of  the  plats  except  number  8,  where  the 
treatment  cost  $1.68  more  than  the  increased  yield  was  worth. 
Similarly,  the  quantity  of  potash  seems  to  have  had  but  little  effect 
towards  increasing  the  yield.  Comparing  Plats  10  and  11  as  to 
treatment,  the  only  difference  is  in  the  quantity  of  potash  applied, 
which  is  four  times  as  much  on  one  plat  as  the  other.  Yet  the 


358  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

yields  of  the  two  plats  show  the  opposite  relation,  the  one  with  the 
lighter  treatment  producing  the  heavier  yield.  A  comparison  of 
the  yields  on  Plats  3  and  9  shows  that  the.  lack  of  potash  in  the 
treatment  has  not  seriously  affected  the  yield.  Plat  3  with  80  pounds 
of  potash  gave  an  increase  of  4,890  pounds,  while  Plat  9  without 
potash  gave  4,170  pounds.  Plat  9,  however,  received  but  240 
pounds  nitrate,  which  probably  accounts  for  its  somewhat  lower 
yield.  While  no  test  was  niade  with  sodium  nitrate  alone,  or  either 
acid  phosphate  or  potash  singly,  yet  from  the  foregoing  it  seems 
quite  likely  that  nitrogen  is  the  only  element  which  can  be  applied 
in  quantity  with  profit  on  this  particular  soil.  Details  are  given  in 
the  table  on  the  opposite  page. 

FLORIDA. — Prof.  John  M.  Scott,  Assistant  Director  of  the  Florida 
Experiment  Station,  Gainesville:  In  Florida  we  may  if  we  wish 
have  an  abundance  of  forage  crops.  Many  different  legumes  and 
grasses  can  be  grown  for  hay,  for  pasture,  or  for  soiling.  How- 
ever, out  of  the  numerous  varieties,  only  a  certain  number  are  of 
especial  value  for  pasturing  live  stock. 

GRASSES. 

Wiregrass. — In  the  pine  forests,  the  native  wiregrass  grows  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  kinds.  After  the  pine  trees  have  been  re- 
moved by  the  lumbermen  it  is  only  a  question  of  a  few  years  until 
most  of  the  wiregrass  disappears,  to  be  replaced  by  more  nutritious 
grasses,  such  as  the  paspalums. 

Para-grass. — This  may  be  called  a  dual-purpose  grass,  as  it  either 
furnishes  good  pasture  for  nine  to  10  months  in  the  year  or  it 
may  be  pastured  only  in  the  winter  from  February  to  May.  If  the 
para-grass  sod  be  plowed  during  the  latter  part  of  May,  a  better 
hay  crop  will  be  secured.  If  used  solely  for  pasturage  it  will  per- 
haps be  found  advisable  to  plow  only  in  December  or  January. 
The  plowing  of  the  sod  gives  the  grass  new  life  and  vigor  for  the 
coming  year's  growth,  and  also  protects  it  from  frosts.  In  some 
respects  para-grass  resembles  Bermuda  grass,  especially  in  its  habit 
of  growth.  When  growth  begins  in  the  spring,  runners  10'  to  30' 
in  length  are  sent  out  in  all  directions,  rooting  from  the  nodes. 
When  the  ground  is  fairly  covered  with  runners,  upright  shoots 
are  sent  up  from  each  node,  from  12"  to  3'  or  4'  in  height.  The 
yield  of  hay  per  acre  is  from  1  to  4  tons. 


EFFECT  OF  TOP-DRESSING 


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360  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Japanese  sugar-cane. — This  is  of  course  really  a  large  grass,  and 
for  heavy  yield  of  green  forage  containing  large  amounts  of  carbo- 
hydrates there  is  perhaps  no  crop  that  surpasses  it.  A  yield  of 
25  to  30  tons  per  acre  is  not  unusual.  This  is  perhaps  three  times 
the  yield  that  one  is  able  to  secure  from  either  corn  or  sorghum. 
Japanese  sugar-cane  is  a  perennial.  It  does  not  produce  its  maxi- 
mum yield  until  about  the  third  or  fourth  year  after  planting.  One 
planting,  with  proper  attention,  will  give  satisfactory  yields  for  20 
years  or  more.  This  in  itself  gives  a  considerable  advantage  over 
annual  forage  crops.  Japanese  sugar-cane  may  be  used  as  pasture, 
as  soiling  crop,  for  silage  or  as  dry  forage  (hay).  It  will  give 
the  best  result  as  pasture  from  about  Nov.  15  to  Feb.  15.  However, 
it  will  not  stand  pasturing  in  the  spring  after  the  young  growth 
has  started.  For  soiling  it  will  give  better  results  if  not  cut  until 
the  crop  is  fairly  well  matured.  However,  it  can  be  fed  at  any 
time  between  July  and  January.  The  largest  quantity  of  silage  or 
dry  forage  will  be  obtained  by  harvesting  during  November  or 
early  in  December.  These  dates  refer  to  north-central  Florida. 
When  used  as  a  dry  forage  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  if  the 
forage  be  run  through  a  feed-cutter  just  before  feeding.  Pre- 
pared and  fed  in  this  way  there  will  be  a  minimum  of  refuse  and 
waste.  When  properly  handled,  hay  made  from  Japanese  sugar- 
cane may  be  kept  for  six  months,  and  still  be  relished  by  horses, 
cattle  and  hogs. 

Bermuda  Grass. — This  is  a  good  summer  pasture,  is  relished  by 
all  kinds  of  stock  and  is  nutritious.  From  its  method  of  growth 
Bermuda  grass  does  not  make  a  desirable  hay  crop  except  on  good 
rich  soil  or  where  it  is  heavily  fertilized.  Bermuda  will  be  found 
to  be  a  satisfactory  pasture  grass  on  all  classes  of  soil.  However, 
the  sod  should  receive  a  liberal  amount  of  fertilizer.  Two  or  three 
light  applications  of  fertilizer  during  the  year  will  produce  better 
results  than  one  heavy  application.  It  will  be  found  advisable  to  go 
over  Bermuda  grass  with  either  a  disk  or  spike-tooth  harrow  each 
time  the  fertilizer  is  applied.  This  harrowing  seems  to  put  new 
life  into  the  grass,  and  results  in  an  increased  growth  of  nutritious 
blades. 

LEGUMES. 

Velvet  beans. — Perhaps  the  velvet  bean  is  the  best  legume  for 
Florida.  It  affords  without  doubt  the  best  winter  pasture  that  can 


LEGUMES   IN    FLORIDA 


361 


362 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


FORAGE  CROPS  IN  FLORIDA 


363 


364  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

be  grown  here.  Though  the  velvet  bean  does  not  furnish  a  green 
pasture  at  any  season  of  the  year,  yet  it  supplies  good  foraging  from 
December  or  January  until  grass  comes  in  the  spring.  It  is  usually 
estimated  that  one  acre  to  one  acre  and  a  half  of  velvet  beans  will 
be  enough  to  fatten  one  animal.  The  cost  of  growing  this  crop 
will  be  from  $5  to  $7  per  acre.  The  yield  per  acre  varies  accord- 
ing to  conditions,  but  1  ton  to  V/2  tons  of  beans  is  not  too  much 
to  expect. 

Bur  clover. — This  furnishes  good  grazing  during  the  winter 
months.  If  one  may  chance  to  have  a  good  Bermuda  pasture  for 
summer  grazing  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  sow  bur  clover  on 
the  Bermuda  sod  (say  during  October),  and  disk  in  the  seed.  By 
the  middle  of  December  this  will  have  made  a  good  growth  and 
will  give  good  pasturage  until  April.  If  not  pastured  too  close, 
bur  clover  will  reseed  itself  from  year  to*  year,  and  in  this  way 
will  make  a  permanent  pasture. 

SOME    HAY    CROPS    OF    FLORIDA. 

Ci'abgrass. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  common  hay  grass  in 
Florida.  It  is  an  annual  found  abundantly  in  most  cultivated  fields. 
By  some  it  is  considered  a  noxious  weed;  but  if  it  were  not  for 
crabgrass,  there  would  be  but  little  home-grown  hay  put  on  the 
market.  Crabgrass  requires  next  to  no  attention.  If  the  grow- 
ing crop  be  given  proper  attention  in  the  way  of  cultivation  but 
little  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  keeping  crabgrass  under  con- 
trol. After  early  crops  (such  as  oats,  melons,  early  corn,  cabbage 
and  cucumbers)  are  harvested  it  comes  up  voluntarily,  and,  as  a 
rule,  enough  fertilizer  will  have  been  left  by  the  previous  crop  to 
give  the  crabgrass  a  good  start  and  produce  a  good  crop  of  hay. 
The  yield  of  hay  will  be  from  y2  ton  to  2  tons  per  acre,  depending 
on  conditions. 

Beggarweed. — Beggarweed,  sometimes  called  Florida  clover,  is  a 
valuable  hay  crop ;  but  it  is  not  grown  so  extensively  as  it  should 
be.  It  is  seldom  seen  in  the  fields  during  the  time  that  the  crops 
are  being  cultivated;  but  like  crabgrass  it  springs  up  quickly  when 
cultivation  ceases.  To  make  the  best  quality  of  hay,  beggarweed 
should  be  cut  before  the  stems  become  hard  and  woody.  After 
such  crops  as  oats,  melons,  cabbage  and  cucumbers  two  good  crops 


GROWING  FORAGE  IN  FLORIDA 


365 


366  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

of  beggarweed  hay  can  be  secured.  If  the  first  crop  be  cut  as  early 
as  the  first  week  in  August  there  will  be  time  enough  for  a  second 
cutting. 

Natal  grass  (Tricholaena  rosea). — This  is  an  annual  grass,  a 
native  of  South  Africa,  and  is  now  grown  to  some  extent  in  a 
number  of  other  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries.  Its  appear- 
ance before  flowering  somewhat  resembles  timothy.  When  in  bloom, 
however,  it  is  very  unlike  timothy,  and  has  a  purple  flower.  It  has 
a  straight  upright  stem  with  many  side  leaves.  It  grows  from  2' 
to  5'  high.  When  natal  grass  first  germinates  and  comes  up  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  crabgrass ;  but  after  it  has 
reached  a  height  of  4"  or  5"  it  is  readily  distinguished.  It  is  easy 
to  eradicate  natal  grass  by  cultivation.  For  this  reason  it  is  seldom 
seen  as  a  weed  in  tilled  fields,  while  the  growing  crop  is  being  culti- 
vated. But  when  cultivation  ceases  natal  grass  seed  may  come  up 
and  make  a  good  growth,  after  such  crops  as  Irish  potatoes,  melons, 
oats  and  other  early  crops  have  been  harvested.  In  feeding  value 
natal  grass  hay  is  somewhat  richer  than  timothy  hay.  The  analysis, 
as  given  in  the  Florida  state  chemist's  report  for  1907  is  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 9.75 

Fiber 36. 75 

Ash 5.02 

Protein 7.45 

Nitrogen-free  extract 39.23 

Ether  extract 1 .80 

The  yield  of  hay  from  this  crop  is  satisfactory,  being  from  y2 
to  4  tons  per  acre  for  the  season.  Two  good  hay  crops  can  gen- 
erally be  obtained  during  the  year,  and  under  very  favorable  con- 
ditions 3  may  be  had. 

GEORGIA. — Director  Martin  V.  Calvin  of  the  Georgia  Experiment 
Station,  Experiment,  Ga. :  I  regret  I  can  not  find  among  the  bulle- 
tins of  this  station  any  that  touch  the  subject  of  meadows  and 
pastures.  It  is  a  very  interesting  and  important  subject,  but,  as 
you  know,  our  people — very  many  of  them  ex  necesitate  rei — have 
been  giving  so  much  attention  to  cotton  production  that  they  have 
lost  sight  of  live  stock.  Out  of  office  hours,  I  am,  and  have  been, 
trying  to  get  a  good  word  to  the  people  through  the  secular  press 
in  the  interest  of  more  and  better  stock,  and  improved,  labor-saving, 


GRASSES  IN   ILLINOIS  367 

farm  implements.     With  more  live  stock  will  come  the  demand  for 
pastures  and  meadows. 

ILLINOIS. — Prof.  O.  D.  Center  of  the  Illinois  College  of  Agricul- 
ture, Urbana,  111. :  While  the  list  of  available  grasses  is  long, 
there  are  a  few  that  are  always  serviceable,  and  are  of  greatest 
value.  These  in  the  order  of  their  importance  for  pasture  grasses 
in  Illinois  are:  Kentucky  bluegrass  (Poa  pratense),  redtop  (Agros- 
tis  vulgaris),  timothy  (Phleum  pratense},  orchard  grass  (Dactylis 
glomerata),  perennial  ryegrass  (Lolium  perenne}  and  meadow  fox- 
tail (Alopecurus  pratensis).  This  list  includes  only  the  true 
grasses  that  are  of  unquestioned  value.  It  is  also  common  to  in- 
clude in  this  list  the  clovers,  medium  red,  alsike,  and  white,  as 
well  as  alfalfa,  which  last  mentioned  certainly  comes  more  truly 
under  the  head  of  meadow  plants  than  those  for  pasture.  We 
have  such  a  diversity  of  soil  types  in  Illinois  that  no  one  mixture 
will  do  for  all  locations.  Classifying  the  soils  as  good  land  well 
drained,  land  of  ordinary  fertility  poorly  drained  and  poor  soils, 
dry,  gravelly  and  broken,  we  present  the  following  mixtures  for 
permanent  pasture: 

Good   land   well   drained, 

4  pounds  Kentucky  bluegrass  =Poa  pratense 

2  pounds  Redtop  ==  Agrostis  vulgaris 

2  pounds  Orchard  grass  =  Dactylis  glomerata 

3  pounds  Timothy  =  Phleum  pratense 

1  pound  Meadow  foxtail  =Alopercurus  pratensis 

1  pound  Perennial  ryegrass  =Lolium  perenne. 

2  pounds  Alsike  or  white  clover 

or  a  mixture  of  both. 

This  variety  of  grasses  and  the  amounts  of  each  give  a  total 
of  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  which  will,  taking  the  number  of 
seeds  per  pound  of  the  different  sorts  and  the  average  per  cent 
of  viability  into  consideration,  supply  nearly  21,000,000  fertile  seed 
per  acre;  this  means  that  there  are  at  least  450  seeds  per  square 
foot  of  surface.  While  we  realize  that  it  is  often  advised  to  sow 
twice  as  much  seed  per  acre  as  here  suggested,  we  contend  that 
this  seeding  is  sufficiently  thick  if  sown  on  a  properly  prepared 


368  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

seedbed.     For  permanent  pasture  on  poorly  drained  land  the  follow- 
ing mixture  is  recommended : 

5  pounds  Kentucky  Bluegrass       =Poe  pratense 

2  pounds  Redtop  =Agrostis  vulgaris 

1  pound  Orchard  grass  =Dactylis  glomerata 

3  pounds  Timothy  =Phleum  pratense 
1^2  pounds  Meadow  fescue  =:(Festuca  pratensis) 
2l/2  pounds  Alsike  clover  z=Trifolium  hybridum 

Here  again  we  have  15  pounds  per  acre  of  a  seed  mixture  fur- 
nishing over  22,000,000  seeds — certainly  a  sufficiently  heavy  seeding 
for  all  practical  purposes.  For  permanent  pasture  on  poor  soil, 
dry,  gravelly,  or  broken,  we  suggest  the  following: 

3  pounds  Redtop  =Agrostis  vulgaris 

2  pounds  Orchard  grass  z=Dactylis  glomerata 

4  pounds  Sheeps   fescue  =zFestuca  ovina 

3  pounds  Timothy  =Phleum  pratense 

4  pounds  Italian  rye  grass  =Lolium  Italicum 
2  pounds  White  clover  =Trifolium  repens 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  mixture  contains  a  greater  number  of 
pounds  to  be  sown  per  acre  than  either  of  the  preceding.  The 
number  of  viable  seeds  per  acre,  taking  a  good  average  per  cent  of 
germination  for  each  sort,  will  be  practically  23,000,000  or  530 
per  square  foot  of  surface. 

Meadows  and  Hay  Land.. — For  meadows  there  are  fewer  sorts 
of  grass  used  than  for  pastures.  The  old  but  incorrect  idea  that 
timothy  is  the  best  and  most  valuable  grass  for  hay  is  still  pre- 
valent in  too  many  sections  of  Illinois.  Throughout  the  cornbelt, 
however,  the  clovers  and  alfalfa  are  more  in  evidence.  On  the 
poorer  soils  of  the  state,  redtop  is  the  staple  grass  for  hay.  It  has 
been  aptly  put  by  one  of  the  most  successful  and  progressive  far- 
mers of  this  state  that  the  common  practice  of  soil  depletion  of 
Illinois  progresses  along  the  following  lines:  "Corn  until  the  land 
refuses  to  produce  profitable  crops ;  then  corn  and  oats,  or  corn  and 
wheat,  until  the  same  limit  is  reached.  After  this  condition  pre- 
vails, clover  is  brought  into  use  and  another  period  of  profitable 
cropping  ensues  until  the  soil  refuses  to  respond  readily,  when 
timothy  is  substituted,  and  a  series  of  years  of  timothy  hay  pro- 
duction follows.  Presently,  however,  the  timothy  fails  to  yield  a 


GRASSES  IN   ILLINOIS  369 

profitable  crop,  and  redtop  is  hailed  as  the  savior  of  the  land,  and 
as  the  money-producer.  This  thought  is  soon  dispelled,  however, 
for  redtop  quickly  ceases  to  pay  for  the  labor  of  cutting  and 
stacking,  and  the  only  recourse  left  for  the  thoughtless  and  care- 
less farmer  (?)  is  the  poor  house."  This  expresses  the  exact  con- 
dition of  the  hay  meadow  situation  throughout  too  large  a  proportion 
of  Illinois.  The  well-cared-for  meadows  of  the  state  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  either  pure  timothy,  clover  and  timothy  mixture, 
clover  and  orchard  mixture,  or  some  one  of  the  clovers  alone. 
There  is  a  very  small  number  of  farms  in  Illinois  that  even  at- 
tempt to  have  permanent  meadows.  .The  extreme  length  of  life 
of  a  hay  field,  if  it  is  at  all  available  for  cultivated  crops,  is 
from  4  to  6  years.  Where  a  field  cannot  be  cultivated  there  is  a 
decided  tendency  toward  seeding  it  to  alfalfa  and  making  the 
most  permanent  hay  land  possible.  True  there  are  hundreds  of 
acres  of  land  in  the  sou'thern  part  of  Illinois  which  produce  a  ton 
or  less  of  poor,  weedy,  redtop  hay  per  acre,  but  these  fields  might 
better  be  classed  as  abandoned  rather  than  as  meadow  lands. 

Care  of  Pastures  and  Meadows. — Special  attention  to  a  pasture 
or  to  a  meadow  is  one  of  the  clearest  indications  of  good  farming. 
Where  cultivation  and  fertilization  of  the  grasslands  of  a  farm  are 
practiced,  the  grain  crops  and  the  live  stock  of  the  farm  show 
careful  attention  and  good  breeding.  The  use  of  the  disk  harrow 
in  the  spring  followed  by  a  smoothing  harrow  has  proved  of 
especial  value  in  keeping  a  pasture  free  from  weeds  and  promoting 
the  growth  of  grass.  The  same  is  true  of  meadows.  When  this 
cultivation  is  accompanied  by  the  addition  of  plant  food,  such 
food  as  the  soil  indicates  by  response  it  is  in  need  of,  the  growth 
and  yield  secured  far  outweigh  the  cost  of  labor  and  plant  food 
applied.  Carefully  conducted  experiments  have  proved  that  with  a 
clover  meadow  the  yield  may  be  increased  more  than  a  ton  per 
acre  through  cultivation  and  the  application  of  phosphorus. 
(Steamed  bone  or  raw  rock  phosphate).  This  is  especially  true 
on  the  land  of  the  cornbelt  of  Illinois.  While  the  effect  is  less 
marked  with  the  timothy  meadow,  it  is  still  sufficiently  large  to 
warrant  the  expenditure  of  labor  and  money  for  the  application. 
Pastures  respond  markedly  to  like  treatment,  and  not  only  give 
grazing  facilities  for  a  larger  number  of  animals,  but  show  the 
benefits  of  the  cultivation  and  addition  of  plant  food,  when  broken 
and  put  into  crops. 


370 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


Following  is  a  method  of  determining  amounts  of  various  sorts 
of  'seed  to  include  in  a  mixture : 


Name. 


Seeds  per 
pound. 


Per  cent  of 
germination. 


Viable  seed. 


Kentucky  bluegrass 2,400,000 

Redtop 6,000,000 

Orchard  grass 600,000 

Timothy 1,170,000 

Meadow  foxtail 900,000 

Perennial  ryegrass .*.  340,000 

White  or  alsike  clover 700,000 

Total 

Kentucky  bluegrass 2,400,000 

Redtop 6,000,000 

Orchard  grass 600,000 

Timothy 1,170,000 

Meadow  fescue 400,000 

Alsike  clover 700,000 

Total ~ 

Redtop 6,000,000 

Orchard  grass 600,000 

Sheeps  fescue 700,000 

Timothy 1,170,000 

Italian  ryegrass. 300,000 

White  clover 700,000 

Total... 


70 


80 


5,750,000 

9,650,000 
800,000 

3,150,000 
180,000 
300,000 

1,120,000 


20,900,000 


7,200,000 

9,600,000 

400,000 

3,100,000 


1,400,000 


22,180,000 


14,500,000 

800,000 

1,900,000 

3,150,000 


1,320,000 


22,750,000 


INDIANA.— Prof.  A.  T.  Wiancko,  Agriculturist  at  Purdue  Univer- 
sity Experiment  Station,  Lafayette,  Ind. :  There  is  no  doubt  that  tim- 
othy is  our  best  meadow  grass  in  this  part  of  the  country.  Orchard 
grass  has  been  considerably  tried  and  advocated  but  in  practice  it 
does  not  seem  to  meet  with  much  favor  among  farmers.  I  judge  that 
this  is  on  account  of  its  form  of  growth,  and  its  rather  coarse  stems. 
Meadow  fescue  and  redtop  have  a  place  but  they  are  comparatively 
unimportant  beside  timothy.  Such  grasses  as  Bromus  inermis, 


GRASSES  IN  KANSAS  371 

ryegrass  and  the  oat-grasses  are  valuable  under  certain  conditions, 
but  they  have  found  no  important  place  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
I  believe,  however,  that  there  is  a  good  field  for  investigation  along 
this  line  and  that  the  number  of  grasses  that  may  be  profitably 
used  for  meadows  will  be  increased.  Concerning  clovers,  it  is  our 
observation  that  for  general  purposes  on  an  ordinary  farm  where 
ordinary  rotations  are  followed  there  is  nothing  that  can  quite 
take  the  place  of  common  red  clover.  There  is  very  little  else 
used  in  this  state.  Where  soil  improvement  is  the  prime  object 
in  clover  production  I  believe  the  mammoth  clover  has  an  impor- 
tant place,  and  some  of  our  farmers  are  using  it  for  that  purpose 
with  very  satisfactory  results ;  but  where  clover  may  be  used  for 
either  hay  or  seed  production,  or  both,  the  common  red  has  the 
preference.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  alsike  clover  should  be  used 
to  a  greater  extent  for  sowing  in  meadows  with  timothy,  as  it 
works  in  well  with  timothy  and  adds  very  materially  to  the  quality 
of  the  hay  produced.  Alsike  is  grown  for  seed  to  some  extent 
here,  but  a  strong  objection  to  it  is  that  it  is^eak-stemmed  and 
lies  too  close  to  the  ground  when  sown  alone.  With  a  mixture  of 
timothy  this  objection  does  not  hold.  Under  favorable  conditions  in 
southern  Indiana  it  is  practically  a  perennial  and  in  well-cared-for 
meadows  should  last  a  long  time.  Alfalfa  is  becoming  quite  popular 
here  and  will  soon  be  one  of  the  leading  legumes  grown  for  hay 
and  pasture  purposes.  For  permanent  pastures  there  is  nothing 
quite  equal  to  Kentucky  bluegrass,  but  in  many  cases  it  seems  wise 
to  mix  some  other  grasses  and  clovers  with  it,  especially  in  cases 
where  the  bluegrass  does  not  grow  luxuriantly  at  certain  times  of 
the  year.  In  this  way  several  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  may  find 
a  place  in  permanent  pastures.  For  temporary  pastures,  red  clover 
with  a  little  timothy  in  it  is  most  popular.  There  are  a  number  of 
annual  crops  that  may  be  profitably  used  for  pasture,  especially  for 
hogs.  Among  these  are  the  cowpea  and  soybean.  Our  observations 
indicate  that  alfalfa  will  be  more  and  more  used  for  pasture  pur- 
poses as  people  become  better  acquainted  with  it  and  learn  how 
properly  to  treat  it. 

KANSAS. — Prof.  A.  M.  Ten  Eyck,  of  the  Agronomy  Department 
of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan :  There  are 
no  domestic  grasses  adapted  for  growing  in  central  and  western 
Kansas  which  will  make  good  permanent  pasture  or  meadow. 


372  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Kentucky  bluegrass  and  white  clover  have  been  gradually  introduced, 
and  are  becoming  well  established  in  the  eastern  and  northeastern 
portions  of  the  state;  and,  in  fact,  Kentucky  bluegrass  is  about  the 
only  variety  of  domestic  grass  which  is  well  suited  for  permanent 
pasture,  and  it  must  be  associated  with  white  clover  in  order  that  it 
may  continue  to  thrive  and  make  productive  pasture  continually  for  a 
number  of  years.  Perhaps  meadow  fescue,  commonly  known  in 
Kansas  as  English  bluegrass,  comes  as  near  being  a  permanent 
meadow  grass  as  any  variety  of  domestic  grass  grown  in  this  state ; 
yet  as  a  rule  it  is  much  more  profitable  to  seecl  new  fields  every 
four  to  six  years,  and  break  up  the  old  meadows,  planting  the  land 
to  corn  or  other  crops  for  a  few  years  before  re-seeding  to  grass. 
As  a  rule,  I  do  not  advocate  keeping  the  same  land  continuously 
in  any  kind  of  grass,  either  for  meadow  or  pasture,  provided  the 
land  can  be  used  for  other  crops,  and  new  seeding  of  grass  can  be 
secured  without  too  much  expense  or  difficulty. 

Covering  land  ^th  grass  is  nature's  way  of  restoring  to  old 
worn-out  soils  the  fertility  and  good  tilth  characteristic  of  good 
soils.  The  true  grasses  do  not  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  as  do 
clover  and  alfalfa,  yet  they  are  in  a  sense  nitrogen-gatherers  in  that 
the  nitrogen  of  the  soil  is  collected  and  stored  up  in  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  humus.  Thus  grasses  prevent  the  wasting  of  nitrogen  and 
other  plant  food  elements  and  serve  to  protect  the  soil  and  maintain 
its  fertility.  By  their  extensive  and  deep  penetrating  root  systems, 
many  grasses  also  tend  to  break  up  and  deepen  the  soil,  gathering 
and  storing  plant  food  in  their  roots,  and  thus  actually  increasing 
the  humus  and  available  plant  food  of  the  soil.  The  perfect  tilth 
and  freedom  from  clods  so  characteristic  of  virgin  soils,  is  always 
more  or  less  completely  restored  whenever  soil  has  been  seeded 
down  to  grass  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time.  Grasses  and  legumes 
maintain  the  supply  of  soil  nitrogen  and  restore  the  proper  soil 
texture ;  besides  they  are  profitable  crops  and,  in  fact,  are  absolutely 
necessary  on  every  farm  on  which  stock  is  kept.  Pasture  must 
be  had  on  every  farm,  and  it  is  quite  essential  that  it  be  made  a  part 
of  the  regular  crop  rotation.  Much  more  grass  can  be  produced 
when  pastures  are  kept  fresh  and  new,  and  the  increase  of  fertility 
and  improvement  of  soil  texture  result  in  larger  crops  of  corn 
and  grain  when  the  pasture  is  broken  up  and  planted  to  •  these 
crops. 

There,  is  still  much  native  grassland  in  Kansas,  and  if  permanent 


GRASSES  IN   KANSAS  373 

pastures  and  meadows  are  desirable  these  lands  had  better  be  left 
in  grass,  since  there  are  no  grasses  better  adapted  for  permanent 
pasture  or  permanent  meadow  in  Kansas  than  the  native  grasses 
which  grow  on  Kansas  prairies.  As  yet  we  have  not  been  able  to 
domesticate  these  wild  grasses  so  that  they  can  be  re-seeded  suc- 
cessfully. Several  of  the  native  grasses  are  being  grown  by  our 
botanical  department  with  the  idea  of  domesticating  them  and  select- 
ing improved  varieties  for  propagation.  The  following  are  valuable 
and  permanent  wild  Kansas  grasses:  Big  bluestem  (Andropogan 
furcatus),  little  bluestem  (Andropogan  scoparius),  buffalo  grass 
(Buchloe  dactyloides),  gama  grass  (Tripsacum  dactyloides} ,  Indian 
grass  (Chrysopogon  nutans) ,  switch  grass  (Panicum  virgatum), 
Prairie  oats  (Bouteloua  racemosa},  prairie  grass  (Koeleria  cristata 
and  Katonii  obtusata),  and  short  gama  (Bouteloua  hirsuta). 

As  pastures  and  meadows  get  old  they  become  sod-bound  and  less 
productive,  and  this  is  true  of  wild  grasses  as  well  as  of  domestic 
grasses.  The  available  fertility  of  the  soil  finally  becomes  ex- 
hausted and  much  of  it  is  locked  up  in  the  immense  root  system 
which  is  developed  by  a  thick  growth  of  grass.  With  domestic 
grasses  ?.  new  growth  may  often  be  secured  by  thoroughly  disking 
and  harrowing  the  sod  early  in  the  spring,  and  this  method  has  also 
been  successfully  practiced  with  the  native  grasses.  The  disking 
has  the  effect  of  destroying  part  of  the  grass  plants,  whose  roots 
soon  decay,  furnishing  new  food  for  the  growth  of  the  grass. 
The  disking  also  breaks  up  the  compact  condition  caused  by  the 
tramping  of  stock,  and  areates  the  soil,  while  the  mulch  of  mellow 
earth  acts  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture,  thus  favoring  the  growth  of 
the  grass. 

In  order  to  get  the  greatest  results,  however,  fertilizers  should 
be  applied  along  with  the  disking.  No  better  fertilizer  can  be 
applied  to  grass  than  barnyard  manure.  The  top-dressing  applied 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter  serves  as  a  cover  to  protect  the  grass  roots 
from  the  extremes  of  temperature.  As  spring  opens  the  water 
from  the  melting  snow  and  rains  carries  the  nutrients  from  the 
manure  down  to  the  roots  of  the  grass,  causing  an  early  strong 
growth,  which  continues  throughout  the  season.  During  the  sum- 
mer also,  the  manure  acts  as  a  mulch  to  keep  the  water  in  the  soil, 
thus  protecting  the  plants  more  or  less  from  the  influence  of  dry 
weather.  There  is  no  more  convenient  place  to  haul  manure  than 
on  the  grass  land;  there  is  no  crop  which  responds  more  readily 


374  MEADOWS   AND    PASTURES 

and  gives  more  profitable  results  from  the  application  of  manure 
than  does  grass ;  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  wait  until  the  pasture  or 
meadow  is  old  and  worn-out  before  making  liberal  applications 
of  manure.  It  is  my  recommendation  always  to  use  grasses  in 
rotation  with  other  crops  whenever  possible.  There  are  a  number 
of  grasses  which  are  more  or  less  well  adapted  for  growing  as 
rotation  grasses  in  Kansas,  and  these -may  always  be  more  or  less 
permanent.  Judging  from  the  nature  of  the  grasses  and  their 
general  adaptation  and  the  experience  of  farmers  in  growing  them 
I  have  prepared  the  following  list  of  grasses  and  combination  of 
grasses  and  legumes  as  being  suitable  for  'meadow  or  pasture  to 
the  several  divisions  of  the  state:' 

For  meadows  in  Eastern  Kansas: 

1.  Timothy  and  Mammoth  alsike  or  common  red  clover. 

2.  Orchard  grass  and  common  red  clover. 

3.  Bromus  inermis  and  common  red  clover. 

4.  Meadow  fescue  and  common  red  clover. 

5.  Bromus  inermis.  orchard  grass,  and  common  red  clover. 

6.  Redtop,  timothy  and  alsike  clover. 

Central  Kansas: 
Nos.  2.  3,  and  5,  as  named  above. 

7.  Western  ryegrass  and  Bromus  inermis,  with  clover. 

Western  Kansas: 

8.  Bromus  inermis,  Western  ryegrass  and  alfalfa. 

9.  Bromus  inermis  and  alfalfa. 

10.  Bromus  inermis. 

11.  Tall    oatgrass. 

For  Pasture  in  Eastern  Kansas : 

1.  Meadow  fescue,  orchard  grass,  Bromus  inermis  and  common 

red  clover  or  alsike  clover. 

2.  Bromus  inermis,  timothy,  redtop  and  alsike  clover. 

(Especially  on  low  lands.) 

3.  Bromus  inermis  and  alfalfa. 

4.  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  white  clover. 


GRASS    MIXTURES    FOR    KANSAS  375 

Central  Kansas : 

5.  Bromus  inermis,  orchard  grass,  western  ryegrass  and  common 

red  clover  or  alfalfa. 

6.  Bromus  inermis  and  alfalfa. 

7.  Bromus  inermis. 

Western  Kansas: 

8.  Bromus  inermis,  western  ryegrass  and  alfalfa. 

9.  Bromus  inermis. 

10.     Bromus  inermis  and  Tall  oatgrass   (Tall  oatgrass  is  recom- 
mended for  western  climate  and  light  soil. 

Combinations  of  grasses  and  perennial  legumes  are  usually  to 
be  preferred  to  any  single  grass,  both  for  meadow  and  for  pasture. 
A  combination  of  grasses  is  especially  desirable  for  pasture,  giving 
more  continuous  grazing,  greater  protection,  more  variety,  and 
perhaps  a  better  balanced  food  ration.  In  choosing  grasses  for 
pasture  the  object  .should  be  to  choose  such  varieties  that  the  defi- 
ciencies of  one  variety  may  be  balanced  by  the  good  qualities  of 
another.  Grasses  should  be  chosen  which  are  different  in  their 
methods  of  growth  and  their  dates  of  maturity,  in  order  to  lengthen 
the  grazing  period,  and  give  the  greatest  amount  and  most  con- 
tinuous grazing.  On  the  other  hand,  for  meadow,  grasses  and 
legumes  should  be  chosen  which  have  the  same  maturing  season, 
in  order  to  make  the  best  quality  of  hay.  A  combination  of  grasses 
usually  makes  a  more  perfect  sod  than  any  one  grass  will  produce 
and  a  more  permanent  pasture  or  meadow.  A  little  clover  or  alfalfa 
should  be  seeded  with  every  combination  of  grasses,  whether  for 
meadow  or  pasture.  The  legumes  are  enabled,  by  means  of  the 
bacteria  which  work  on  the  roots  of  these  plants,  to  utilize  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air,  and  thus  tend  to  increase  the  supply  of  nitrogen 
in  the  soil,  and  act  as  host-plants  or  feeders  to  the  nitrogen-exhaust- 
ing grasses.  It  is  very  important  therefore  that  every  pasture  or 
meadow  should  contain  some  perennial  legumes,  because  the  pres- 
ence of  these  nitrogen  gathering  plants  will  not  only  cause  a  greater 
production  from  the  other  grasses,  but  it  will  make  the  pasture  or 
meadow  more  enduring,  and  leave  the  soil  more  fertile  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case  when  the  sod  is  finally  broken  for  the  growing 
of  other  crops.  Carrying  out  this  principle  it  is  a  good  plan  to  seed 
clover  or  alfalfa  in  the  native  pastures  and  meadows.  I  have 
observed  this  tried  in  a  few  instances,  and  clover  especially  often 


376  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

makes  a  good  catch  and  is  beneficial  in  helping  to  revive  and  renew 
the  growth  of  the  prairie  grass.  In  establishing  a  grass  meadow 
or  pasture  one  of  the  most  important  factors  is  a  proper  seedbed. 
An  ideal  seedbed  for  grasses  should  not  be  deep  and  mellow, 
rather  the  soil  should  be  mellow  but  finely  pulverized  only  about 
as  deep  as  the  seed  is  sown;  while  below  the  seed  the  soil  should 
be  firm  but  not  too  hard  and  compact,  making  a  good  connection 
with  the  deeper  subsoil.  This  offers -the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  the  germination  of  the  seed  and  the  growth  of  the  young  grass 
plants.  The  firm  soil  below  the  seed  allows  the  capillary  moisture 
to  be  drawn  up  to  the  seed,  while  the  mellow  soil  above  the  seed 
offers  the  most  favorable  condition  for  the  warming  of  the  soil  and 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  reach  the  seed;  and  these  three  factors, 
moisture,  heat  and  oxygen,  are  essential  for  the  germination  of 
all  seeds.  Meanwhile,  the  mellow  mulch  of  surface  soil  acts  as 
a  blanket  to  keep  the  moisture  from  escaping  and  at  the  same 
time  gives  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  delicate  little 
plant  to  unfold  and  push  upward  into  the  air  and  sunshine,  also  the 
firm  sub-surface  soil  gives  the  proper  root-hold  and  environment 
which  conduces  to  a  rapid  and  strong  growth  of  the  young  roots. 
Grasses,  clover  and  alfalfa  are  not  only  much  more  likely  to  start 
poorly  in  a  deep,  loose  seedbed,  ,but  even  after  starting,  the  young 
plants  are  much  more  likely  to  "freeze  out"  in  winter  or  "burn 
out"  in  summer  than  will  be  the  case  in  the  shallow,  firm-bottomed 
seedbed  as  described  above. 

Clover  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  or  early  summer  because 
fall-seeded  clover  and  alfalfa  are  apt  to  winter  kill. 

Throughout  a  large  part  of  Kansas  grasses  and  alfalfa  may  be 
successfully  seeded  either  early  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring. 
On  the  whole  perhaps  the  early  spring  seeding1  is  safer,  provided  a 
good  seedbed  is  provided  and  the  land  is  not  too  foul  with  weeds. 
It  is  safest  to  sow  almost  all  kinds  of  grasses  and  perennial  legumes 
alone,  or  without  a  nurse  crop.  Always  have  the  seedbed  fully 
prepared  before  sowing  the  grass  seed,  so  that  little  work  will  have 
to  be  done  on  the  ground  after  seeding.  If  the  seed  is  sown  broad- 
cast, one  light  harrowing  after  seeding  is  usually  sufficient  to  cover 
the  seed,  and  is  preferable  to  several  harrowings  or  any  deep  work- 
ing of  the  soil  after  seeding.  Grass  seed  should  not  be  covered 
deeply,  usually  not  more  than  an  inch  or  so,  or  even  less,  depend- 
ing somewhat  on  the  soil  and  the  weather  conditions.  A  good  seed- 


GRASSES  IN   MICHIGAN  377 

bed  may  be  prepared  by  disking  and  harrowing  corn  stubble  land, 
or  early  fall  plowing  which  has  settled  well  makes  a  good  seedbed 
for  spring  seeding.  If  it  is  necessary  to  plow  shortly  before  seed- 
ing, the  ground  should  be  firmed  by  the  use  of  a  sub-surface  packer 
or  by  repeated  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller.  Along  with  a  good 
seedbed  do  not  fail  to  use  the  best  quality  of  seed.  The  best  is 
always  the  cheapest  even  at  the  higher  price. 

MICHIGAN. — Prof.  R.  S.  Shaw,  Director  of  the  Michigan  Experi- 
ment Station,  East  Lansing :  The  following  grasses  are  most  com- 
monly grown  in  Michigan :  Timothy,  orchard  grass,  bluegrass  and 
redtop.  I  doubt  very  much  whether  there  is  any  one  grass  that  is 
used  more  than  bluegrass  in  this  state.  I  would  place  timothy 
second,  redtop  third  and  orchard  grass  fourth.  No  matter  what 
combination  of  clovers  and  grasses  may  be  sown  in  this  state,  at 
the  end  of  five  or  six  years  bluegrass  will  have  taken  almost  com- 
plete possession  to  the  total  exclusion  of  the  other  sorts.  Blue- 
grass  takes  possession  here  naturally,  if  given  sufficient  time,  without 
any  seeding  whatever.  Redtop  is  being  grown  only  on  low-lying 
lands  or  in  connection  with  permanent  pasture  mixtures.  Legumes 
most  commonly  grown  are  red  clover,  both  mammoth  and  medium, 
alsike  and  alfalfa.  The  medium  red  clover  is  very  largely  grown  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Lower  Peninsula,  while  the  mammoth  is 
grown  in  the  northern  part  of  that  region.  Alsike  clover  is  being 
used  very  largely  in  connection  with  red  clover  6  to  8  pounds, 
timothy  2  pounds  and  alsike  2  pounds.  It  has  become  a  very  com- 
mon practice  to  seed  down  for  hay  and  pasture  with  a  combination 
of  this  kind.  The  alfalfa  area  of  this  state"  is  extending  very  rapidly. 
We  have  had  a  wide  range  of  conditions  here  as  regards  soil  and 
climate,  and  it  has  taken  some  little  time  to  find  out  just  how  to 
handle  this  problem.  Permanent  pastures  are  to  some  extent  fer- 
tilized by  applications  of  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  with  the 
manure  spreader  as  a  top-dressing.  I  doubt  very  much  whether  any 
commercial  fertilizers  are  used  in  this  way  and  only  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  lime. 

MINNESOTA. — Prof.  Andrew  Boss,  Agriculturist  of  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station,  St.  Anthony  Park:  The  best  grass  in  my 
estimation  for  pasture  in  Minnesota  is  Kentucky  bluegrass,  especially 
where  the  pasture  is  to  remain  for  any  length  of  time.  The  second 
best  is  the  Austrian  Brome  grass  or  Bromus  inermis.  Third, 


378  MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

timothy  or  preferably  timothy  mixed  with  a  small  amount  of 
medium,  alsike  or  white  clover.  There  are  few  others  that  are  of 
any  value  for  pasture.  In  short  rotations  and  in  temporary  pas- 
tures, the  common  mixture  of  grass  seeding  is  timothy  6  to  8  pounds, 
medium  red  clover  3  to  6  pounds,  white  clover  y2  pound  per  acre. 
For  permanent  pasture  the  seeding  would  be  somewhat  lighter  of 
these  grasses  with  8  to  14  pounds  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  added. 
On  our  rolling  prairie  lands  where  drainage  is  good,  any  of  these 
seedings  will  do  well  for  pasture.  On  low  wet  lands  preference  is 
given  to  timothy,  redtop  and  alsike  clover.  For  the  drier  and 
sandier  lands  the  Austrian  Brome  grass  seems  to  be  best  adapted. 
The  common  hay  crop  in  Minnesota  is  timothy  or  a  mixture  of 
timothy  and  alsike  or  medium  red  clover.  All  three  grow  in  profu- 
sion on  land  that  is  in  good  condition.  On  lowlands  redtop  and 
alsike  with  a  small  mixture  of  timothy  are  in  high  favor.  In  secur- 
ing a  stand  of  these  grasses  it  is  customary  to  sow  them  in  spring 
with  the  seeding  of  spring  grains,  preferably  barley  or  spring 
wheat.  Fall-sown  rye  or  winter  wheat  also  make  a  very  desirable 
nurse-crop  for  grasses,  the  grass  seed  being  sown  the  following 
spring.  Splendid  results  are  obtained  in  the  management  of  our 
grasslands  by  top-dressing  with  barnyard  manures.  Both  hay  and 
pastures  yield  heavily  to  this  treatment,  though  the  application  to 
the  pasture  should  be  made  during  the  fall  or  early  winter  season. 

MISSISSIPPI. — Prof.  W..L.  Hutchinson,  Director  of  the  Mississippi 
Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College :  Bermuda  and  carpet 
grass  are  the  two  essential  pasture  grasses  for  this  state.  Lespedeza, 
which  is  a  clover,  is  perhaps  of  more  importance  than  either  as  a 
pasture  plant,  as  it  appears  in  almost  every  pasture  in  the  state  and 
ranges  in  importance  from  being  essentially  the  whole  thing  along 
down  to  about  50  per  cent.  White  clover  is  an  important  pasture 
plant.  Bur  clover  is  very  much  less  so,  but  more  so  every  year ; 
that  is,  effort  is  constantly  being  made  to  increase  the  area  of  bur 
clover  in  the  pasture.  Lespedeza  has  spread  all  over  this  state  by 
natural  methods,  very  little  having  been  planted,  and  because  of 
this  fact  it  appears  in  practically  all  pastures  everywhere.  It  is  a 
particularly  valuable  plant  in  the  brown  loam  area  in  the  western 
part  of  the  state.  This  area  extends  from  Tennessee  to  the  Louis- 
iana line,  and  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  runs  through  it.  Ber- 
muda grass  must  be  planted,  and  hence  it  does  not  appear  over 


GRASSES   IN    MISSOURI    .  379 

nearly  so  large  an  area  as  does  lespedeza,  but  where  it  has  been 
planted  one  finds  the  Bermuda  and  lespedeza  growing  together,  and 
this  makes  a  better  combination  or  better  pasture  than  either  plant 
by  itself.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  carpet  grass  appears 
along  the  branch  bottoms  (what  we  are  in  the  habit  of  calling 
draws)  and  like  lespedeza  spreads  naturally,  and  in  this  section 
one  will  find  carpet  grass  and  lespedeza  growing  together.  In  the 
prairie  section,  in  east  Mississippi,  on  the  worn  areas  thereof,  par- 
ticularly where  there  is  considerable  exposure  of  the  lime  rock, 
melilotus,  commonly  called  sweet  clover  or  bokhara,  is  an  import- 
ant pasture  plant.  On  such  areas,  lespedeza  makes  the  poorest 
stand,  and  in  consequence  is  of  less  importance  than  on  any  other 
areas  in  the  state;  but  even  in  these  pastures  it  doubtless  assumes 
a  value  equal  to  melilotus.  The  very  best  combination  I  know  is 
Bermuda,  lespedeza,  white  clover,  bur  clover  and  vetch  on  the  same 
land ;  but  the  pasture  area  in  this  state  on  which  one  finds  all  of 
these  plants  is  very  limited  indeed.  To  recapitulate,  lespedeza  is 
the  universal  pasture  plant ;  Bermuda  is  essentially  the  pasture 
grass  for  this  section,  but  as  it  must  be  planted  it  does  not  appear 
over  our  entire  pasture  areas  by  any  means.  It  is  not  nearly  so 
general  as  lespedeza.  Just  what  area  we  have  in  Bermuda  I  do 
not  know.  Then  comes  carpet  grass  in  the  moist  bottom  lands  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state,  while  other  important  pasture  plants 
are  white  clover,  melilotus,  bur  clover  and  vetch.  Lespedeza,  Ber- 
muda, carpet  grass,  white  clover  and  melilotus  practically  furnish 
the  grazing  in  the  pastures  of  this  state,  and  if  I  should  venture 
a  remark  I  would  say  that  lespedeza  furnished  more  grazing  than 
all  of  the  others  combined  on  account  of  its  being  everywhere  and 
the  other  plants  growing  only  on  limited  areas.  Johnson  grass  and 
Bermuda  are  essentially  our  hay  grasses.  Other  hay  plants  of  im- 
portance are  alfalfa,  lespedeza,  cowpeas,  oats,  wheat  and  sorghum. 
Soybeans  should  and  may  become  an  important  hay  plant.  The  uni- 
versal hay  proposition,  applicable  on  every  farm  in  the  state,  is 
wheat  or  oats  sown  in  September  and  cut  in  the  dough  stage  the 
latter  part  of  May,  then  on  the  same  land  plant  cowpeas  or  soy- 
beans, giving  two  hay  crops  a  year  on  the  same  land. 

MISSOURI. — Prof.  H.  J.  Waters,  Director  of  the  Missouri  Ex- 
periment Station,  Columbia :  Our  studies  have  been  principally 
with  timothy  meadows,  but  I  have  made  considerable  study  of 


380  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

bluegrass  pastures  at  the  same  time.  I  have  been  studying  the 
life-history  of  the  timothy  plant  in  connection  with  our  investiga- 
tions of  factors  affecting  the  yield,  and  found,  to  my  utter  aston- 
ishment, that  it  is  not  a  perennial,  as  is  popularly  supposed.  That 
is  to  say,  when  a  plant  has  sprung  from  the  seed  it  does  not 
have  a  period  of  some  years  of  development,  which  would  corre- 
spond to  the  youthful  or  growing  period  of  an  animal,  and  then 
a  period  of  a  few  years  of  maximum  efficiency  and  productive- 
ness, which  would  correspond  to  the  period  of  prime  of  life  of  an 
animal,  and  then  a  period  of  decline  and  debility,  corresponding 
to  the  old  age  period  of  an  animal.  On  the  other  hand,  plants 
spring  anew  each  year  from  the  old  bulb,  and  the  bulb,  after  it 
has  produced  its  new  plant,  dies.  This  new  plant  produces,  in 
addition  to  its  top  which  we  cut  for  hay,  a  new  bulb  to  carry 
the  plant  over  the  following  winter,  and  this  in  turn  produces  a 
new  plant  and  dies.  So  that  the  timothy  plant  is  an  annual  in 
the  same  sense  at  least  that  a  potato  is  an  annual.  These  studies 
are  the  very  basis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  management  of  meadows 
and  pastures.  To  say  in  a  few  words  what  the  best  grasses  and 
clovers  for  Missouri  are  is  practically  impossible  because  of 
the  great  variation  of  the  soil  both  physically  and  chemically. 
Moreover,  Missouri  covers  a  distance  of  300  miles  from  north 
to  south  in  a  portion  of  the  .  country  where  the  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  north  and  south  blend.  For  example,  cotton  is 
grown  quite  extensively  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state 
and  some  spring  wheat  is  grown  in  the  extreme  western  por- 
tion. Broadly  speaking,  there  is  but  one  hay  grass  in  Missouri, 
timothy,  and  but  two  hay  clovers,  the  common  red  clover  and 
alfalfa,  with  a  large  reliance  in  the  extreme  southern  portion  of 
the  state  on  the  forage  plant,  the  cowpea  for  hay.  Likewise,  broadly 
speaking,  there  is  but  one  permanent  pasture  grass  for  Missouri, 
and  that  is  Kentucky  bluegrass,  and  but  one  permanent  pasture 
clover,  namely,  white  clover,  which  comes  into  bluegrass  pastures 
without  seeding  and  covers  the  ground  during  the  resting  period 
of  the  bluegrass,  thereby  giving  the  crop  a  much  higher  nutritive 
value  and  larger  yield.  I  have  divided  the  state  into  nine  principal 
groups,  as  follows: 

1.  The  loess  soil  both  north  and  south  of  the  river  which  is  open 
and  friable  and  does  not  hold  bluegrass  well.  This  land,  however 
is  rich  in  lime  and  on  it  timothy  thrives;  so  does  red  clover  and 


GRASSES   IN    MISSOURI  381 

likewise  alfalfa.  Broadly  speaking,  the  hay  grasses  are  the  three 
mentioned.  The  land  is  very  valuable,  and  so  far  no  permanent 
pasture  is  laid  down  as  a  rule,  but  the  meadows  are  mowed  for  hay 
for  one  or  two  years  then  pastured  for  one  or  two  years,  cattle  or 
hogs  being  fed  on  them  and  then  broken  up  and  put  in  corn  for 
three  or  four  years,  then  changed  to  oats  for  one  year  and  again 
sown  to  timothy  and  red  clover.  2.  The  black  prairie  soil  of 
northwest  Missouri  and  the  best  corn  soil  in  the  state.  It  is, 
however,  of  a  little  too  coarse  texture  to  produce  bluegrass  to  the 
best  advantage,  although  better  adapted  than  is  Region  I,  and  is 
more  generally  used  than  is  Group  I,  otherwise  the  practices  of 
the  two  regions  are  identical.  3.  Black  limestone  loam  represents 
the  highest  development  of  bluegrass  pastures  in  the  state.  The 
soil  is  capable  of  fully  equaling  the  best  bluegrass  production 
in  Kentucky.  Here  the  pastures  are  permanent  with  large  shade 
trees,  the  farmers  breeding  pure-bred  stock  to  a  large  extent.  The 
meadow  grasses  are  timothy  and  red  clover.  Alfalfa  does  well 
on  these  soils  and  is  coming  to  be  more  and  more  generally  em- 
ployed. 4.  The  same  as  2,  plus  clay  and  finer  and  tighter,  there- 
fore better  adapted  to  bluegrass  than  2.  Here  the  chief  reliance  is 
bluegrass  and  white  clover,  while  the  hay  grasses  are  with  perhaps 
less  reliance  upon  alfalfa  than  1,  2,  and  3,  and  more  reliance  upon 
cowpeas.  5.  A  level  prairie  region  with  a  very  compact  soil  of 
close  texture  and  is  the  timothy  region  of  the  state.  The  great  bulk 
of  the  timothy  seed  produced  in  the  state  is  grown  in  this  region. 
Clovers  are  not  so  extensively  used  and  cowpeas  are  more  widely 
relied  upon.  In  this  region  timothy  meadows  are  kept  for  10  years 
or  more  without  being  plowed,  although  the  trend  is  away  from  this 
practice.  6.  A  lighter  soil  of  coarser  texture  with  some  lime  and 
not  so  well  adapted  to  either  bluegrass  or  timothy  or  the  clovers 
as  the  regions  just  mentioned.  Here  considerable  redtop,  orchard 
grass  and  the  larger  fescues  find  much  favor,  both  for  hay  and 
pasture  with  considerable  reliance  on  the  cowpea  as  a  forage  plant. 
7.  A  limestone  region  in  which  red  clover  reigns  supreme.  The  soil 
is  of  slightly  too  open  texture  for  bluegrass  to  reach  its  best  when 
first  cleared.  Continued  tramping,  however,  rectifies  this  difficulty 
and  ultimately  this  will  also  be  a  great  bluegrass  region.  The  chief 
reliance  for  hay  here  is  timothy  and  red  clover,  and  cowpeas. 
For  pasture  bluegrass  and  white  clover  in  the  older  sections,  and 
orchard  grass  and  the  tall  fescues  on  the  newer  land,  with  the 


382  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

native  bluestem  in  the  uncleared  wilds.  8.  The  region  for  which 
we  have  not  yet  found  a  dominant  grass.  All  of  the  grasses  named, 
however,  do  moderately  well,  but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
one  that  is  taking  possession  of  the  country  as  yet.  9.  A  sandy 
region  in  which  Bermuda  grass  is  practically  the  only  successful 
pasture  grass,  and  where  alfalfa  is  the  principal  hay  on  the  black 
waxy  soils,  with  cowpeas  on  the  sandier  phases. 

In  all  these  regions  in  the  wetter  soils  alsike  clover  is  used  instead 
of  red  clover  and  either  English  bluegrass  (Festuca  pratensis)  or 
the  tall  fescues  (Festuca  elatior),  or  redtop  (Agrostus  vulgaris) 
is  used  instead  of  timothy.  Likewise  on  the  soils  deficient  in  lime 
orchard  grass  or  redtop  is  used  instead  of  timothy,  and  cowpeas  are 
used  as  a  legume  instead  of  red  clover. 

OKLAHOMA.— Prof.  L.  A.  Moorhouse,  Agronomist  of  the  Okla- 
homa Experiment  Station,  Stillwater:  Bermuda  grass  is  the  only 
grass  that  has  given  satisfactory  results  on  our  upland  soils  in  this 
section,  and  I  believe  that  this  statement  will  apply  to  many  districts 
in  Oklahoma.  We  have  tested  practically  all  of  the  standard  grasses 
in  this  locality,  and  we  have  failed  to  secure  profitable  yields  on  the 
higher  lands  of  central  Oklahoma.  While  I  believe  that  good  crops 
of  Brome  grass  or  timothy  or  possibly  English  bluegrass  might  be 
secured  on  many  of  our  creek  and  river  bottom  areas,  I  have  the 
opinion  that  these  areas  should  be  set  aside  for  alfalfa.  We  could 
not  hope  to  harvest  more  than  \y2  to  2  tons  of  hay  with  any  of 
the  types  I  have  mentioned,  but  when  alfalfa  becomes  well  set  on 
such  areas  we  can  harvest  at  least  5  tons  of  cured  hay  per  annum. 
We  therefore  recommend  that  our  more  fertile  soils  be  set  aside 
for  the  culture  of  alfalfa;  Bermuda  grass  and  white  clover  will 
make  a  satisfactory  combination  for  the  thinner  upland  soils.  The 
cowpea  can  also  be  utilized  on  such  areas.  English  bluegrass  or 
meadow  fescue  has  been  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  north  central 
counties  of  Oklahoma,  and  I  am  informed  that  it  produces  very 
satisfactory  yields.  I  have  visited  a  few  farms  where  this  type  is 
used  and  can  say  that  growers  presented  very  favorable  results. 
Brome  grass,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  in  the  northwestern 
counties  of  the  state,  while  Kentucky  bluegrass,  orchard  grass  and 
timothy  may  be  found  over  on  the  east  side.  I  am  satisfied  that 
some  field  tests  should  be  conducted  in  the  localities  where  these 
types  have  been  introduced,  and  as  soon  as  our  district  agricultural 


GRASSES   IN   NEW   ENGLAND  383 

schools  are  located  we  may  have  an  opportunity  to  make  further 
observations  on  growth  of  our  standard  grasses  and  clovers. 

CONNECTICUT. — Prof.  L.  A.  Clinton,  Director  of  the  Storrs  Experi- 
ment Station,  Eagleville:  The  best  grass  for  pasturage  purposes  in 
Connecticut  is  Kentucky  bluegrass.  This  is  our  natural  grass 
which  makes  its  appearance  on  all  soils  where  the  regular  seeding 
fails,  and  it  can  be  depended  on  with  greater  certainty  than  any 
other  grass.  For  seeding  down  meadows,  I  recommend  a  mixture 
per  acre  of  8  quarts  timothy,  6  quarts  of  redtop,  4  pounds  of 
red  clover  and  2  pounds  of  alsike  clover.  For  the  first  cutting 
this  will  give  a  larger  percentage  of  clover  hay.  The  second  cutting 
should  have  a  little  clover,  but  it  will  be  largely  timothy  and  red- 
top.  After  a  few  crops  of  hay  have  been  cut  off  if  it  is  then  turned 
into  pasture  it  will  be  only  a  short  time  before  it  will  be  June-grass 
pasture,  June-grass  being  Kentucky  bluegrass. 

Prof.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  Director  of  Connecticut  Experiment  Station, 
New  Haven:  The  best  grass  in  general  for  lawns  and  for  pastures 
which  are  closely  cropped  in  this  part  of  the  country  I  believe  is 
the  Rhode  Island  bent,  a  small  variety  of  agrostis  vulgaris.  It  will 
stand  trampling,  close  grazing  and  dry  weather  better  than  any 
grass  I  know  of,  and  makes  sweet  pasture.  The  yield  is  too  small 
to  make  it  a  profitable  hay  grass.  I  have  never  seen  the  sheep's 
fescue  used  in  pastures  to  any  extent,  but  there  are  some  strains 
of  it  that  I  have  no  doubt  would  make  excellent  pasture.  Here 
timothy  is  universally  grown  where  hay  is  to  be  sold,  for  it  com- 
mands the  best  price,  though  redtop  is  known  to  be  much  more 
valuable  for  dairy  use.  Timothy  and  redtop  ttre  about  the  only 
grasses  that  are  ever  sown  in  this  state.  Occasionally  one  will 
find  a  farmer  who  has  sown  orchard  grass  in  shady  places  and 
who  makes  some  use  of  the  meadow  fescue  in  mixtures  of  timothy 
and  redtop. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. — Prof.  F.  W.  Taylor,  Agronomist  of  the  New 
Hampshire  Experiment  Station,  Durham:  A  large  part  of  New 
England  and  especially  New  Hampshire  is  naturally  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  our  most  valuable  cultivated  grasses,  timothy,  redtop, 
bluegrass,  orchard  grass,  and  the  common  clovers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  crimson  clover,  find  the  soils  and  the  climate  here  most  con- 
genial for  a  permanent  home.  This  is  attested  by  the  fact  that 
many  pastures  and  meadows  continue  to  produce  fair  yields  of  grass 


384  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

and  hay  year  after  year  without  re-seeding.  I  have  seen  fields 
which  have  not  been  plowed  for  30  or  40  years,  and  without  the 
application  of  manure  or  fertilizer  in  the  interim  are  still  giving 
an  annual  production  of  a  ton  of  hay  per  acre.  I  make  this  state- 
ment not  as  an  approval  of  the  practice  but  as  an  indication  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  section  for  grass-growing.  The  best 
grasses  for  pastures,  taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  in  the  order  of 
their  value  and  importance,  are  probably  as  follows :  Kentucky 
bluegrass,  timothy,  white  clover  and  wood  meadow  grass.  For 
mowing  lands  or  meadows  the  following  are  of  most  importance: 
Timothy,  redtop,  orchard  grass  and  alsike  clover.  For  re-seeding 
pastures  the  following  mixtures  would  be  recommended  for  seeding 
one  acre: 

Heavy  moist  soils :  Timothy  5  pounds,  redtop  8  pounds,  orchard 
grass  4  pounds,  meadow  foxtail  3  pounds,  white  clover  5  pounds. 

Light  soils :  Timothy  8  pounds,  redtop  4  pounds,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  8  pounds,  orchard  grass  8  pounds,  white  clover  4  pounds. 

Orchards  and  shady  places:  Timothy  6  pounds,  redtop  4  pounds, 
Kentucky  bluegrass  6  pounds,  orchard  grass  8  pounds,  wood  meadow 
grass  2  pounds,  white  clover  4  pounds. 

For  re-seeding  meadows  the  mixture  per  acre  would  be  as  follows : 

Heavy  soils:  Timothy  10  pounds,  redtop  4  pounds,  red  clover  6 
pounds,  alsike  clover  4  pounds. 

Light  soils:  Timothy  8  pounds,  redtop  4  pounds,  orchard  grass 
6  pounds,  red  clover  6  pounds,  alsike  clover  4  pounds. 

With  the  object  of  determining  to  what  extent,  by  what  means 
and  at  what  expense  our  pasture  lands  can  be  improved,  the  experi- 
ment station  began  a  series  of  experiments  last  year  to  continue  for 
a  period  of  four  years.  The  cost  and  relative  merits  of  the  following 
treatments  are  to  be  studied: 

1.  Harrow  and  re-seeding. 

2.  Harrowing,  re-seeding  and  liming. 

3.  Harrowing,  re-seeding,  liming  and  fertilizing. 

4.  Plowing  and  re-seeding. 

5.  The  pasturing  of  sheep. 

Although  no  definite  results  can  yet  be  approximated  the  indica- 
tions from  the  first  season's  work  are  that  plowing  and  reseeding 
constitutes  the  .most  economical  method  of  pasture  improvement. 

A  series  of  fertilizer  experiments  on  hay  land  now  in  operation 
for  three  years  indicate  that  nitrogen  fertilizers  especially  in  the 


GLASSES  IN  NEW  YORK  38§ 

form  of  nitrate  of  soda  are  the  most  effective  in  increasing  the 
yield  of  timothy  and  redtop,  while  wood  ashes  and  the  potash 
fertilizers  seem  most  efficient  in  maintaining  and  promoting  the 
growth  of  the  clovers.  While  the  application  of  lime  has  been 
strongly  advocated  by  many,  its  use  on  the  soils  of  the  college  farm 
and  on  various  others  in  this  section  of  the  state  has  not  proved 
markedly  beneficial. 

NEW  YORK.— Prof.  G.  F.  Warren,  Professor  of  Farm  Management 
and  Farm  Crops,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca : 
The  one  great  hay  grass  in  New  York  State  is  timothy,  the  second 
hay  grass  of  importance  is  redtop.  There  are  no  other  grasses  of 
very  great  importance  for  hay  production,  although  orchard  grass, 
meadow  fescue  and  several  wild  grasses  are  met  with  occasionally. 
The  most  important  pasture  grass  is  Kentucky  bluegrass.  Second 
in  importance  is  timothy.  Canada  bluegrass  is  very  common  on 
the  poorer  lands.  Redtop,  meadow  fescue  and  orchard  grass  occur 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  pastures.  Mammoth  red  and  medium 
clovers  are  the  most  important  legumes  in  the  state.  Second  to 
these  is  alsike  clover,  and  in  all  pasture  mixtures  white  clover 
should  be  included.  Where  it  grows  successfully  alfalfa  is  a  most 
valuable  hay  plant  for  this  state.  '  For  pastures  a  seeding  of  timothy, 
Kentucky  bluegrass  and  white  clover  is  always  desirable.  To  this 
sometimes  should  be  added  redtop,  orchard  grass  and  meadow  fes- 
cue. For  hay  production  a  standard  mixture  is  timothy,  mammoth 
clover,  medium  clover  and  alsike  clover.  To  this  redtop  should  be 
added  under  certain  conditions.  Alsike  clover  grows  on  land  that 
is  too  acid  or  too  poor  for  the  growth  of  red  clover;  redtop  grows 
on  land  that  is  too  poor  for  the  production  of  timothy,  so  that  on  the 
poorest  lands,  provided  they  are  not  manured  and  limed,  it  may 
sometimes  pay  to  grow  redtop  or  a  mixture  of  redtop  and  alsike 
clover.  Alsike  clover  is  not  grown  quite  so  universally  as  it  deserves 
to  be.  It  is  not  so  seriously  affected  by  the  root  borer  as  red 
clover,  and  as  stated  will  grow  under  more  unfavorable  soil  condi- 
tions. Throughout  this  section  of  the  state  where  there  is  limestone 
soil,  alfalfa  will  grow  readily.  In  practically  every  county  in  the 
state  there  are  some  soils  on  which  alfalfa  will  produce  an  excellent 
crop,  provided  the  land  is  limed,  inoculated  and  manured. 

Prof.  Paul  J.  White,  Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Crops,  New 
York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca :  What  are  the  best 


386  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

grasses  for  New  York  State  named  in  order  for  pasture?  First, 
Kentucky  bluegrass;  second,  timothy;  third,  Canada  bluegrass; 
fourth,  redtop.  We  have  hardly  arrived  at  the  point  where  we  can 
give  definite  instructions  regarding  mixtures  for  various  soil  types. 
Many  letters  from  farmers  regarding  this  matter  come  in.  If  I  do 
not  know  the  soil  type  I  usually  give  them  the  following  mixture: 
10  pounds  of  timothy,  4  pounds  of  Kentucky  bluegrass,  3  pounds  of 
redtop,  3  pounds  of  orchard  grass,  6  pounds  of  red  clover,  4  pounds 
of  alsike  clover  and  2  pounds  of  white  clover.  I  do  not  include  in 
this  Canada  bluegrass  which  I  place  third  in  value  as  a  pasture 
grass.  The  reason  is  this:  Canada  bluegrass  is  thought  by  many 
to.be  a  weed  in  pastures.  However,  throughout  the  sections  of 
New  York  State  where  the  soil  has  become  impoverished  there 
are  large  areas  of  which  the  principal  grass  is  Canada  bluegrass. 
This  statement  is  true  of  the  hill  farms  of  southern  New  York, 
and  of  the  formerly  fertile  clay  or  silt  valleys  of  the  Genesee  Valley 
regions  in  Livingston  county.  If  I  were  to  place  these  in  order 
of  abundance  of  the  grasses  in  general,  I  should  place  redtop  before 
Canada  bluegrass,  but  our  experience  with  redtop  has  been  that  cattle 
avoid  this  wherever  they  can  get  any  other  grass.  It  seems  to 
be  unpalatable.  However,  if  the  farmer  states  that  his  land  is 
inclined  to  be  acid  and  poorly  drained,  I  always  recommend  3  to  4 
pounds  of  redtop  in  the  mentioned  mixture.  If  I  know  that  the 
field  is  fertile  and  will  grow  meadow  fescue  I  recommend  the 
growing  of  this  in  small  quantities,  say  3  to  4  pounds  per  acre. 
I  find  this  grass  present  in  pastures  in  the  fertile  sections  of  New 
York  state.  It  is  considered  fine  where  it  will  grow. 

I  have  included  clovers  in  the  mixture  which  I  recommend.  As  to 
value,  they  will  be  arranged  in  the  following  order:  First,  red 
clover ;  second,  alsike  clover ;  third,  white  clover.  This  exhausts 
the  list  of  clovers  adapted  to  our  conditions.  "I  would  arrange  our 
grasses  for  meadows  in  the  following  order :  First,  timothy ;  second, 
redtop;  third,  Canada  bluegrass.  Timothy  is  the  universal  meadow 
grass  in  New  York.  We  may  say  that  it  is  always  included  in  the 
new  seeding  unless  clovers  alone  are  sowed.  Occasionally  a  farmer 
will  use  redtop.  This,  however,  is  not  considered  in  the  same  class 
as  timothy.  It  does  not  make  a.  marketable  hay.  In  the  old  meadows 
which  have  not  been  plowed  for  a  number  of  years,  especially 
on  the  hill  lands  of  our  state,  we  find  a  great  deal  of  Canada  blue- 
grass.  They  consider  this  a  very  superior  hay  grass  for  horses. 


GRASSES  IN  NEW  YORK  387 

However,  its  market  qualities  are  poor.  It  is  never  sown  for  hay, 
but  it  comes  into  the  old  fields  which  have  not  been  plowed  for  a 
long  time.  On  my  own  farm  I  cut  70  acres  the  past  season  of  this 
grass.  It  yielded  about  one-half  ton  of  hay  per  acre.  This  is  worth 
on  the  market  $10  per  ton,  while  timothy  is  worth  $13.  We  use 
red  clover,  either  medium  or  mammoth,  and  alsike  clover  in 
meadows.  No  others  are  used.  Usually  about  10  quarts  of  timothy 
to  6  or  8  quarts  of  red  clover  are  sown  per  acre. 

Regarding  the  system  of  management  and  fertilization  of  meadows 
and  pastures,  I  have  but  little  to  offer  apart  from  the  general 
practice  of  other  sections.  We  consider  that  timothy  should  not 
be  left  down  as  a  meadow  longer  than  two  or  three  years.  The 
first  year  we  cut  a  crop  of  clover,  and  the  second  and  third  years 
the  hay  is  practically  all  timothy.  We  have  been  carrying  on  a 
series  of  experiments  with  farmers  in  connection  with  co-operative 
experiments  which  go  to  indicate  that  100  pounds  or  so  of  nitrate 
of  soda  per  acre  will  increase  the  yield  of  timothy  hay  more  than 
enough  to  pay  for  the  fertilizer  and  labor.  This,  however,  we 
do  not  recommend  to  be  applied  to  timothy  meadows  which  are  not 
at  the  present  time  producing  more  than  a  ton  of  timothy  hay. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  I  always  recommend  sowing  timothy, 
Kentucky  bluegrass  and  white  clover.  These  are  found  growing 
naturally  in  all  parts  of  this  state,  and  on  practically  all  kinds 
of  soil.  They  may  not  be  the  principal  plants  occupying  each  type 
of  soil,  but  they  are  there  in  greater  or  less  numbers  for  permanent 
pasture.  I  think  that  Kentucky  bluegrass  should  always  be  included 
in  a  new  seeding  because  it  will  increase  from  year  to  year.  White 
clover  is  a  pasture  plant  which  eventually  appears  in  nearly  all  types 
of  soil,  but  it  should  be  sown  occasionally.  It  is  in  and  out  and 
adds  materially  to  the  forage  of  pastures.  I  often  recommend  to 
farmers  that  they  sow  on  their  old  pastures  a  light  mixture  of  some 
of  the  principal  grasses  and  clovers.  I  think  from  $1  to  $3  worth  of 
seed  at  a  time  will  pay  for  itself  and  more  in  the  course  of  a 
year  or  two.  Prof.  Samuel  Fraser,  manager  of  the  Wadsworth 
Estate  at  Geneseo,  sows  from  60  cents  to  $1  worth  of  seed  per  acre. 
About  500  acres,  he  tells  me,  were  thus  reseeded  last  year.  He  states 
that  he  would  prefer  a  light  seeding  to  a  heavy  one.  In  case  the 
seeding  fails  he  can  try  again  another  year.  If,  however,  heavy 
seeding  had  been  applied  the  loss  would  be  great.  Without  doubt 
the  application  of  stable  manure  to  our  run-down  pastures  is  of  vast 


388 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 


importance  in  increasing  their  efficiency.  As  I  often  tell  the  farmer, 
he  would  not  misuse  his  other  crops  as  he  does  his  pastures.  For 
instance,  he  would  not  expect  to  get  a  crop  of  corn  or  timothy 
hay  without  seeding  and  fertilizing. 

MASSACHUSETTS. — Prof.  William  P.  Brooks,  Director  of  the 
Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  Amherst :  The  best  single  grass 
for  all  pastures  having  soils  fairly  retentive  of  moisture  is  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass ;  and  the  best  single  clover  is  of  course  the  white. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  it  is  best  to  use  a  large  variety 
of  grasses  in  pastures.  I  have  generally  advised  about  as  follows : 

MIXTURES  FOR  PERMANENT  PASTURES. 


Variety. 

Light  soils. 

Medium  soils. 

Heavy  soils. 

Timothy 

Pounds 
3 

Pounds. 
4 

Pounds. 
3 

Redtop 

4 

2 

5 

Orchard  crass 

8 

g 

4 

Meadow  fescue 

4 

4 

4 

Hard  fescue 

2 

Tall  fescue  

2 

2 

4 

Rough-stalked  meadow  grass  
Kentucky  bluegrass 

4 

4 

4 
5 

Italian  ryegrass 

3 

4 

2 

Tall  oatgrass 

4 

Meadow  foxtail 

2 

3 

3 

Yellow  oatgrass. 

3 

Sweet  vernal. 

2 

White  clover 

4 

4 

4 

Alsike  clover  .       ... 

1 

2 

3 

Peavine  clover 

2 

2 

MONTANA. — Prof.  F.  B.  Linfield,  Director  of  the  Montana  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bozeman:  In  our  irrigated  country  we  are  using  to 
a  considerable  extent  mixed  grasses  for  pasture.  These  seem  to 
grow  better  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and  enable  us  to  get  the 


GRASSES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS  389 

maximum  return  from  the  land.  On  the  average  we  find  that  it 
takes  not  quite  an  acre  of  land  for  the  season  to  support  one 
cattle  beast  with  an  irrigated  pasture.  Probably  orchard  grass, 
brome  grass,  English  ryegrass  are  about  the  three  best  pasture 
grasses,  but  in  our  mixture  we  nearly  always  use  in  bluegrass 
timothy  and  tall  oat  if  we  can  get  it.  Of  the  clovers  the  red,  alsike 
and  alfalfa  we  use,  the  former  of  course  being  in  this  climate 
biennial  as  a  rule,  and  so  does  not  persist  for  many  years.  The 
alsike  and  the  alfalfa  are  persistent.  We  do  not,  however,  like 
to  have  too  much  of  these  clovers,  as  with  the  luxuriant  growth 
under  irrigation  there  is  some  danger  from  bloat  if  the  clovers 
predominate.  For  our  dry-land  country  we  have  not  yet  determined 
to  our  satisfaction  what  are  the  best  pasture  grasses.  The  native 
grasses  we  find  do  not  yield  as  well  as  some  of  our  cultivated 
varieties,  even  on  the  dry  bench  lands.  Alfalfa  has  been  one  of  our 
most  promising  fodder  crops  and  also  pasture  crops  on  the  bench 
lands.  Brome  and  tall  oat  grass  also  seem  to  do  very  well.  There 
are  other  grasses  which  we  expect  to  try,  but  are  not  yet  able  to 
advise  as  to  their  adaptability.  In  our  studies  on  the  bench  lands 
the  experiments  so  far  conducted  have  not  been  continued  long 
enough  to  warrant  us  in  drawing  very  positive  conclusions. 

NEBRASKA. — Prof.  E.  A.  Burnett,  Director  of  the  Nebraska  Ex- 
periment Station,  Lincoln :  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  best  list 
of  grasses  and  clovers  for  any  region  of  Nebraska,  and  much 
more  so  for  a  region  which  would  cover  so  large  an  area  as  one- 
half  of  the  state.  I  have  asked  some  of  our  leading  farmers  to 
give  me  their  experience  in  the  matter,  a  summary  of  which,  along 
with  my  own  experience  would  indicate  something  as  follows: 

Best  grasses  for  pasture  in  the  Eastern  half  of  Nebraska: 
1.  Meadow  fescue.  2.  Bromus  inermis.  3.  Orchard  grass.  4.  Tim- 
othy. 

Best  grasses  for  pasture  in  the  Western  half  of  Nebraska:  1. 
Bromus  inermis.  2.  Western  wheat  grass,  native.  3.  Meadow  fes- 
cue. 4.  Grama  grasses,  native. 

As  you  go  north  in  the  state,  past  the  center,  the  district  in 
which  brome  grass  would  be  superior  to  meadow  fescue  as  the  best 
single  grass  would  extend  to  the  east.  In  north-central  and  north- 
eastern Nebraska  these  two  grasses  would  be  of  about  equal  merit 
and  should  be  sown  together.  As  a  pasture  mixture  for  eastern 


390  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Nebraska  I  would  suggest  8  pounds  of  meadow  fescue,  6  pounds 
of  Bromus  inermis  or  Bromus  inermis  and  timothy,  2  pounds  of 
red  clover,  3  pounds  of  alfalfa  and  1  pound  of  white  clover.  Omit 
white  clover  where  pasture  is  largely  for  horses.  Omit  red  clover 
and  alfalfa  where  the  land  is  extremely  wet  so  that  they  will  winter- 
kill. As  a  mixture  for  upland  pasture  in  the  western  part  of  the 
state  I  would  suggest  10  pounds  of  brome  grass,  4  pounds  of  meadow 
fescue  and  6  pounds  of  alfalfa.  In  valleys  sow  less  alfalfa  where 
cattle  are  to  be  pastured.  For  permanent  meadows,  alfalfa  seems 
to  be  superior  to  all  others  when  yield  and  value  of  hay  are  con- 
sidered. Alfalfa  does  not  seem  to  fit  into  a  rotation  of  crops  as 
well  as  clover,  and  where  meadows  are  in  a  farm  rotation  in  eastern 
Nebraska,  10  pounds  of  clover  and  8  pounds  of  timothy  hay  make 
an  excellent  mixture,  and  furnish  a  high  quality  of  hay.  In  south- 
eastern Nebraska  it  would  seem  that  bluegrass,  where  some  mix- 
ture of  white  clover  is  present,  furnishes  one  of  the  most  valuable 
pastures,  especially  for  early  spring  and  for  winter  pasture  where 
it  has  been  allowed  to  grow  up  and  mature  before  being  pastured 
down.  In  the  care  and  management  of  pastures  it  is  apparent  that 
the  experience  of  all  good  farmers  is  against  close  pasturing  at  any 
season  of  the  year,  and  especially  so  as  the  period  of  hot,  dry 
weather  approaches.  Pastures  should  always  have  a  sufficient 
amount  of  growth  on  them  to  protect  them  against  burning  sun 
and  against  the  loss  of  water  by  run-off  where  it  would  be  absorbed 
if  there  were  sufficient  growth  on  the  ground. 

The  experience  of  our  best  farmers  indicates  that  pastures  should 
be  mowed  once  or  twice  each  year,  first  at  the  time  when  ragweed 
and  other  coarse-growing  weeds  begin  to  mature  in  late  June  or 
the  early  part  of  July,  and  second,  if  necessary,  to  get  a  few  coarse- 
growing  weeds  in  the  early  part  of  September,  before  they  have 
ripened  their  seed.  The  experience  of  our  farmers  indicates  that 
the  application  of  barnyard  manure  with  a  manure  spreader  very 
greatly  increases  the  productiveness  of  all  upland  pastures  and  prob- 
ably of  all  pastures  which  are  not  liable  to  overflow  from  streams ; 
that  this  manure  can  be  applied  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year 
but  can  best  be  applied  during  the  winter  season,  beginning  in  late 
fall  and  continuing  until  growth  starts  in  the  spring.  An  annual 
application  of  manure  to  upland  pastures  has  very  greatly  increased 
and  has  frequently  doubled  the  stock  carrying  power  of  these  pas- 
tures. It  is  good  practice — where  manure  is  applied  to  pastures— 


GRASSES  IN  NEBRASKA  391 

to  run  over  the  land  with  a  harrow  and  thoroughly  break  up  and 
distribute  this  manure  so  that  it  shall  not  lie  in  clods  upon  the  land, 
if  it  has  not  been  evenly  spread  at  the  time  of  its  application.  The 
application  of  manure  to  meadows  is  as  beneficial  as  to  pastures, 
but  where  coarse  manure  is  applied  in  the  winter  it  should  be 
thoroughly  harrowed  in  the  spring  and  the  coarser  parts  raked  off 
and  removed,  so  that  it  will  not  damage  the  first  cutting  of  hay. 

Carl  Rohde,  Columbus,  Neb. :  My  soil  is  all  upland.  The  grass 
mixture  which  I  sowed  consisted  of  brome  grass,  12  pounds ;  orchard 
grass,  6  pounds ;  meadow  fescue,  6  pounds ;  alsike  clover,  2  or  3 
pounds ;  white  clover,  1  pound.  This  pasture  was  seeded  in  1904, 
and  has  proved  quite  satisfactory  ever  since.  We  have  always 
been  careful  not  to  overstock  it.  I  like  the  clover  mixture  in  the 
pasture,  although  we  lost  one  heifer  in  June,  1907,  on  account  of  it. 
As  a  general  rule  cattle  will  leave  clover  alone  until  it  is  matured 
and  the  other  grasses  get  shorter  on  account  of  a  hot  and  dry  spell, 
which  generally  strikes  us  in  the  latter  part  of  July  and  August. 
For  fertilization  we  have  practised  top-dressing  with  a  manure 
spreader,  putting  on  about  six  loads  to  the  acre.  The  effect  of  this 
was  quite  marked,  and  I  recommend  it  where  the  soil  conditions  are 
similar.  I  do  not  carry  more  than  one  grown  animal  on  every  two 
acres  of  pasture,  but  at  that  rate  we  have  kept  cattle  as  well  as 
pasture  in  excellent  condition.  The  growth  of  the  brome  grass  is 
quite  pronounced  and  easily  determined  on  account  of  the  broad 
leaves  and  vigorous  appearance,  but  I  think  that  the  other  grasses 
fit  in  well  with  the  mixture.  Regarding  clover,  I  consider  alfalfa 
our  stand-by,  as  it  furnishes  the  best  yield  per  acre,  and  seems  to 
be  just  what  we  need  for  our  stock,  with  the  present  high  price  of 
corn.  Could  we  be  sure  however  of  getting  a  stand  of  red  clover, 
by  sowing  in  wheatfields  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  I  think  it  would 
fit  in  a 'little  better  with  our  crop  rotation,  especially  when  we  con- 
sider the  bad  results  obtained  by  a  good  many  farmers  during  the 
past  summer  in  plowing  up  alfalfa  fields,  and  putting  them  into 
corn.  If  reports  are  true,  these  fields  were  the  first  to  show  the 
effects  of  the  drouth.  We  do  not  like  bluegrass  for  our  upland; 
it  does  not  attain  sufficient  length.  It  does  all  right  in  valleys. 

William  Ernst:  Of  all  pasture  grasses  in  southwestern  Nebraska 
Kentucky  bluegrass  gives  the  most  service  if  properly  handled.  If 
you  have  enough  of  it  horses  and  cattle  will  live  on  it  and  thrive 
the  year  round  if  not  covered  with  sleet  or  snow.  The  original 


392  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

prairie  grasses  have  practically  all  disappeared,  killed  out  by  the 
trampling  of  stock  and  the  remainder  was  crowded  out  by  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass  and  white  clover.  These  are  the  pastures  I  like 
better  than  even  the  pastures  of  mixed  grasses  sown  on  cultivated 
lands  and  which  finally  run  to  bluegrass  and  white  clover  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  native  pastures  mentioned  and  which  seem  to 
have  stronger  growth.  The  service  and  revenue  of  any  pasture 
depend  more  on  the  handling  than  on  the  rainfall  during  the  season. 
We  did  not  think  much  of  the  Kentucky  bluegrass  until  we  learned 
how  to  handle  it.  We  would  turn  the  stock  out  onto  the  pasture, 
at  the  first  starting  of  spring,  before  the  grass  was  tall  enough  to 
get  hold  of  it  with  their  teeth,  and  see  that  all  stock  would  be 
turned  on  that  could  possibly  make  a  living  on  it.  This  being 
kept  up  until  perhaps  June  would  present  on  the  more  or  less 
rolling  land  in  eastern  Nebraska  a  pasture  of  short,  thick  growth, 
on  which  an  inch,  two  or  more  inches  of  rain  would  run  off  with- 
out soaking  the  ground  one  inch  in  depth;  while  in  the  adjoin- 
ing cornfield  the  soil  was  soaked  to  such  an  extent  that  cultivation 
had  to  be  postponed  for  two  or  more  days.  This  condition  would 
not  change  until  fall  rains  and  cooler  nights  brought  some  im- 
provement. All  this  taught  us  that  we  must  have  a  good  growth 
of  grass  in  any  pasture  in  order  to  catch  and  retain  the  moisture 
necessary  to  have  a  good  growth  of  grass  during  the  season.  A 
good  bluegrass  pasture  wants  fertile  soil. 

We  handle  our  bluegrass  pastures  as  follows:  We  turn  our 
stock  on  as  early  as  March  when  the  new  grass  comes  through  the 
thick  growth  of  old  grass  of  the  former  season.  Horses  and 
cattle  will  do  remarkably  well  until  abouf  May  when  they  are 
turned  onto  the  mixed  pastures.  In  this  way  the  stock  does  not 
know  the  change  from  dry  feed  to  summer  pasture.  We  now  let 
our  pasture  rest  until  nearly  harvest  and  mow  the  ragweeds  that 
will  be  ready  to  cut  the  first  week  in  July.  If  not  cut  they  will 
greatly  injure  the  stock,  the  horses  in  particular,  in  which  the 
bloom-dust  of  the  ragweed  will  produce  an  eye  inflammation  similar 
to  pinkeye.  This  weed,  if  not  mown,  will  greatly  hamper  the 
growth  of  grass,  absorbing  most  of  the  moisture  and  holding  down 
the  growth,  while  if  mown  it  will  not  be  harmful  to  the  pasture; 
on  the  contrary,  it  will  act  as  a  mulch  and  serve  to  hold  up  the 
tall,  rank  growth  of  bluegrass.  The  stock  now  may  be  kept  on 
pasture  until  snow  covers  them,  which  is  usually  about  the  middle 


GRASS  MIXTURES  FOR  NEBRASKA          393 

of  December.  Stock  is  kept  on  these  pastures  only  in  sufficient 
number  to  leave  plenty  of  grass  to  hold  the  snow.  In  this  way 
we  have  nearly  eight  months  of  pasture  from  our  Kentucky  blue- 
grass. 

We  cannot  keep  the  clover  out,  and  while  we  do  not  think  it  im- 
proves the  feeding  value  of  the  pasture,  we  do  think  it  gives  new 
life  to  the  bluegrass,  which  is  perhaps  due  to  the  nitrogen  introduced 
in  the  soil  by  the  clover.  Horses  in  particular  would  be  better  off 
without  the  clover,  as  it  makes  them  slobber.  Clover  and  timothy 
make  a  good  fall  pasture.  While  we  do  not  sow  clover  for  that 
purpose,  it  naturally  comes  in  in  that  way.  We  sow  the  clover  for 
fertilizing  purposes,  sowing  all  our  small  grain  to  clover  regardless 
of  what  the  next  crop  may  be.  Spring  sowing  often  gives  30  to 
40  days'  good  pasture  during  August  until  plowed  up  for  winter 
wheat,  enough  to  pay  for  the  seed.  Alfalfa  not  fitting  well  in  our 
rotation  of  crops,  we  set  aside  for  meadow  and  hog  pasture,  with 
a  partition  fence  to  divide  it  into  halves,  mowing  and  pastur- 
ing, turn  about ;  that  is  to  say,  mow  one-half  the  first  of  one  month 
and  pasture  the  next  and  so  on,  turn  about.  A  good  all-round 
pasture  was  always  obtained  by  sowing  the  following  mixture: 

Meadow  fescue,  12  pounds ;  orchard  grass,  4  pounds ;  brome  grass, 
4  to  8  pounds;  timothy,  1  pound;  red  clover,  1  pound. 

This  mixture  would  be  about  right  for  central  Nebraska.  Going 
north  I  would  increase  the  brome  grass  and  decrease  the  meadow 
fescue  in  proportion ;  while  going  south  I  would  reverse  the  change ; 
that  is,  increase  the  meadow  fescue  and  decrease  the  brome  grass. 
These  grasses  may  be  sown  with  or  without  nurse-crops  and  if 
once  established  are  quite  drouth  and  heat-resistant.  We  have  used, 
if  convenient,  the  first  growth  for  hay,  but  found  it  lacking  in 
quality  when  compared  with  clover  and  timothy.  The  pasture  of 
the  mixture  usually  is  good  by  May  1,  and  will  last  until  killed 
by  frost.  It  may  be  improved  by  mowing  it  high  when  seeds  are 
formed  by  the  principal  grasses,  but  the  clipping  is  usually  worth 
as  much  when  left  to  lie  on  the  ground  as  when  taken  off  for  hay. 
It  will  renew  the  pasture  from  year  to  year  and  make  a  thicker 
stand  and  sod,  which  are  both  desirable  for  this  mixture  of 
grasses.  Here  again,  the  same  as  recommended  for  the  bluegrass 
pasture,  a  big  heavy  top  is  at  all  times  preferable  to  excessive  short- 
ness, as  it  will  hold  the  moisture  of  the  soil  needed,  for  big  juicy 
growth  of  vegetation, 


394  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

As  to  the  relative  feeding  value  of  the  three  principal  grasses, 
I  have  no  positive  knowledge,  but  know  that  they  supplement  each 
other  admirably,  for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  ripen  all  at  the 
same  time.  Meadow  fescue  after  clipping  or  cutting  for  seed  will 
remain  tender  and  to  some  degree  for  a  longer  time  than  either 
brome  or  orchard  grass.  For  real  winter  pasture  there  is  perhaps 
nothing  better  than  winter  rye,  unless  it  be  Kentucky  bluegrass, 
reserved  for  that  purpose.  Rye  sown  early  in  the  fall  on  ground 
calculated  for  corn  may  be  pastured  closely  until  May  1,  when  a 
disk  should  be  set  to  work  and  thoroughly  kill  it  before  planting 
to  corn.  All  remaining  rye  will  not  help  the  corn ;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  saps  the  ground  of  moisture  and  is  obstructive  to  good 
cultivation.  Winter  rye  sown  in  the  spring  will  not  go  to  straw 
much  before  July,  and  has  helped  us  out  as  hog  pasture  and  has 
acted  as  a  nurse-crop  for  grasses  sown  in  the  early  spring.  We 
have  been  able  to  pasture  the  spring-sown  grasses  right  after  mowing 
about  July  1. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. — Prof.  J.  H.  Shepperd,  Director  of  the  North 
Dakota  Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College :  Timothy,  brome 
grass  and  redtop  have  the  field  for  meadow  and  pasture  production 
in  this  state.  Brome  grass  finds  its  place  in  the  drier  districts  where 
timothy  does  not  succeed,  and  where  it  in  turn  is  readily  killed  by 
ordinary  cultivation  operations  when  the  grower  is  through  with 
it.  Redtop  is  utilized  for  wet  land  that  is  subject  to  flooding. 
Bluegrass  is  highly  valued  here  as  elsewhere  for  lawn-producing 
purposes,  but  it  is  only  a  fair  success  where  water  cannot  be  pro- 
cured for  it,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  and  is  a  failure  in  the 
dry-land  districts  where  an  artificial  water  supply  cannot  be  admin- 
istered. Red  clover  is  the  most  successful  of  the  entire  group  of  its 
kind  and  is  seconded  by  alsike.  Mammoth  clover  survives  here,  but 
is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  common  red  strain.  White  clover  is 
used  in  connection  with  bluegrass  for  growing  lawns. 

OHIO.— Prof.  Chas.  E.  Thorne,  Director  of  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station,  Wooster:  We  are  comparing  grasses  in  a  small  way,  but 
thus  far  have  found  nothing  that  would  encourage  us  to  expect 
from  it  any  superiority  to  our  old  and  long-tested  bluegrass  and 
redtop.  Next  to  these  I  would  place  the  tall  fescue  from  my  per- 
sonal experience  with  it  before  the  station  was  established.  It  is 
especially  adapted  to  redtop  soils  and  possesses  some  points  of  con- 


GRASSES   IN   OREGON  395 

siderable  superiority,  starting  earlier  in  the  spring  and  giving  later 
pastures  in  the  fall.  The  only  objection  to  this  grass  is  the  greater 
expense  of  the  seed  and  the  difficulty  of  getting  pure  seed,  as  the 
seedsmen  are  disposed  to  substitute  the  inferior  meadow  fescue,  or 
even  the  English  perennial  ryegrass,  which,  while  a  splendid  grass  in 
England,  has  not  given  similar  results  in  our  work  by  a  long  way. 
]VFy  advice,  therefore,  has  been  to  sow  for  permanent  pastures  a 
mixture  of  timothy,  medium  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  and  redtop,  the  idea  being  that  the  red  clover  will  occupy  the 
land  practically  but  one  year,  and  will  leave  additional  fertility 
for  the  grass  following.  The  timothy  will  generally  disappear  within 
two  or  three  years,  and  by  that  time  the  redtop  and  blue  grass  will 
be  ready  to  occupy  the  land.  The  alsike  seems  to  be  better  adapted 
to  moist  situations  and  to  be  a  little  more  permanent  in  its  character 
than  the  red  clover.  I  am  convinced  that  our  permanent  meadows 
and  pastures  need  regular  and  systematic  fertilizing  just  as  much 
as  do  the  grain  fields,  and  that  one  serious  defect  in  our  system 
of  agriculture  is  the  neglect  of  this  point.  I  regret  that  we  have 
no  definite  experiments  on  this  point,  such  as  we  have  in  the 
management  of  cereals.  We  are  now  instituting  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  the  renewing  and  improving  of  pastures,  similar  to  those 
in  progress  in  Scotland. 

OREGON. — Prof.  James  Withycombe,  Director  of  the  Oregon  Ex- 
periment Station,  Corvallis :  There  are  many  native  grasses  in  this 
state,  but  few  are  of  much  economic  value.  Among  these  are  the 
bunch  grasses  (Agropyron,  diver  gens  and  spicatum)  and  the  sheep 
fescues.  The  former  are  found  in  the  range  districts  of  eastern 
Oregon  and  the  latter  are  practically  distributed  all  over  the  state. 
The  bunch  grasses,  however,  cannot  withstand  severe  grazing,  con- 
sequently are  in  a  large  measure  destroyed.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  bunch  grasses  the  festucas  make  their  appearance.  The 
station  has  tested  about  150  varieties  of  grasses  collected  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Many  of  these  did  well,  but  only  a  few  were 
considered  of  especial  value.  Among  the  very  best  for  western 
Oregon  are  English  ryegrass,  Italian  ryegrass,  orchard  grass  and 
meadow  fescue.  These  are  the  best  for  both  pasture  and  hay. 
For  seeding  meadow  land  it  is  well  to  add  a  small  amount  of 
timothy,  redtop  and  Kentucky  bluegrass.  Kentucky  bluegrass  does 
well  on  the  irrigated  or  moist  soils  of  eastern  and  southern  Oregon, 


396  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

which  are  usually  well  supplied  with  lime.  There  are  some  17  native 
varieties  of  clover  found  in  Oregon ;  thus  the  common  varieties  of 
clover  do  well.  Red  clover  of  course  is  the  best,  then  come  alsike 
and  white.  Crimson  clover  has  not  been  very  successfully  grown. 
If  it  can  be  germinated  early  in  the  fall  it  will  make  a  good  crop. 
Alsike  clover  does  remarkably  well  on  what  is  locally  known  as 
"white  land."  This  is  a  whitish  clay  land,  very  wet  during  winter 
and  practically  devoid  of  humus.  Where  a  seed  crop  is  not  de- 
sired the  red  and  alsike  clovers  are  sown  together  and  the  combin- 
ation makes  a  very  desirable  hay. 

Clover  is  usually  sown  in  the  spring  with  grain,  although  some 
of  our  best  farmers  sow  it  alone  or  with  about  1  pound  of  rape 
seed  per  acre.  This  latter  method  is  very  popular  in  some  dis- 
tricts on  account  of  the  excellent  fall  pasture  it  affords  for  sheep 
and  other  small  stock.  Another  popular  method  for  a  somewhat 
permanent  pasture  or  meadow  is  to  sow  the  clovers  in  the  spring 
and  the  grass  seeds  the  following  fall.  Another  popular  system  is 
to  sow  red  clover  in  the  spring  and  timothy  in  the  fall.  This  is 
usually  done  for  hay.  The  first  hay  crop  is  clover,  the  next  is 
half  clover  and  half  timothy  and  the  next  is  practically  clean 
timothy.  Gypsum  is  wonderfully  helpful  to  all  of  the  legumes,  so 
the  general  practice  among  our  better  farmers  is  to  sow  from  50 
to  75  pounds  of  gypsum  per  acre  each  spring  on  all  of  their 
leguminous  crops.  This  practice  has  been  found  good  in  pastures, 
particularly  when  clover  is  present. 

Little  work  has  been  done  in  this  state  in  the  way  of  rejuvenating 
pastures  and  meadows.  Some  of  our  more  progressive  farmers 
have  secured  excellent  results  from  the  application  of  a  light  coat- 
ing of  barnyard  compost,  disking  and  where  needed  re-seeding, 
which  is  covered  by  harrowing.  This  should  be  done  early  in  the 
fall  so  that  the  first  general  rains  will  germinate  the  seeds.  Over- 
pasturing  is  the  bane  of  the  meadows  and  pastures.  Close  grazing 
during  the  dry  period  is  very  destructive  to  the  better  grasses  and 
clovers. 

RHODE  ISLAND.— Dr.  H.  J.  Wheeler,  Director  of  the  Rhode  Is- 
land Experiment  Station,  Kingston:  For  ordinary  open  uplands 
the  best  grasses  for  Rhode  Island  are  timothy  (phleum  pratense) 
and  redtop.  Common  red  clover  and  particularly  alsike  clover  are 
also  very  desirable.  From  my  experience,  orchard  grass  is  only 


GRASSES  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA  397 

to  be  recommended  for  use  where  there  is  more  or  less  shade  and 
in  somewhat  moist  lands.  For  land  which  is  too  moist  for  the  best 
success  with  some  of  the  other  grasses  tall  meadow,  oatgrass, 
bromus  inermis  and  meadow  fescue  can  be  successfully  grown,  and 
I  wish  to  lay  particular  emphasis  on  the  last  one.  For  pasture 
purposes  in  this  state  I  consider  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  Rhode 
Island  bent  the  best,  though  Kentucky  bluegrass  will  not  succeed 
generally  without  the  use  of  lime  or  wood  ashes,  while  Rhode  Island 
bent  will  grow  on  our  natural  soil  very  readily. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. — Prof.  J.  N.  Harper,  Director  of  the  South 
Carolina  Experiment  Station,  Clemson  College :  Bermuda  is  with- 
out doubt  our  very  best  grass.  It  makes  a  splendid  pasture  and  can 
be  grazed  for  about  seven  months  during  the  year.  It  withstands 
drouth  well  and  loves  sunlight.  As  it  does  not  seed  in  this  climate 
it  is  propagated  by  planting  the  underground  steins.  The  early 
spring  is  the  best  time  to  plant  it.  The  best  way  to  start  Bermuda 
is  to  lay  off  3'  rows  with  a  turning  plow.  Drop  the  particles  of 
Bermuda  in  these  furrows  about  every  10"  to  12".  Bermuda  should 
follow  bur  clover,  vetch,  cowpeas,  soybeans  or  beggar  weed.  At 
the  time  the  plants  are  dropped  in  the  open  furrows,  100  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  50  pounds  of  kainit  and  150  pounds  of  cottonseed- 
meal  should  be  applied  in  the  furrow  and  then  covered  with  a 
turning  plow  by  running  one  furrow.  About  April  15,  the  following 
year,  75  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  should  be  applied  as  a  top-dress- 
ing. The  second  year  after  planting,  plow  shallow  with  a  light 
turning  plow  or  disk  harrow  and  sow  cowpeas,  cutting  the  cow- 
peas  off  in  the  early  fall.  This  should  be  repeated  about  every 
third  or  fourth  year.  Bur  clover  planted  in  Bermuda  pasture  also 
greatly  benefits  it. 

The  best  time  to  harvest  Bermuda  is  just  after  heading.  In  this 
climate  it  is  usually  ready  to  begin  to  pasture  with  hogs  and  sheep 
about  June  1.  On  our  bottom  lands  it  makes  a  splendid  meadow 
grass.  Bermuda  pastures  and  meadows  should  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  grass  except  in  permanent  pastures  more  than  10  years. 
Bermuda  is  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  almost  as  good  as  timothy 
hay.  It  is  of  great  benefit  to  our  soils  because  it  fills  the  soil  with 
humus  and  fibrous  roots.  The  underground  stems  are  perennial; 
the  plant  is  annual.  Its  worst  enemy  in-  our  pastures  is  the  paspalum 
grass.  It  is  a  heavy  feeder  on  nitrogen.  We  get  an  average  of 
from  1  to  5  tons  of  hay  from  rich  bottom  soils, 


398  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

Texas  bluegrass  (Poa  arichnifera)  is  another  grass  well  adapted 
to  this  section.  The  sod  should  be  planted  in  October  or  Novem- 
ber or  March  or  April.  Plant  the  same  as  Bermuda.  The  rotations 
should  be  the  same  as  Bermuda.  It  should  be  fertilized  about  the 
same  as  Bermuda  except  it  is  well  to  use  nitrate  of  soda,  about  50 
pounds  per  acre  at  the  time  of  putting  out  the  sod.  It  should  be 
cut  for  hay  when  in  full  bloom.  It  does  not  make  a  very  good  hay 
and  should  be  used  entirely  for  pasturing.  The  rootstock  is  peren- 
nial; the  stem  is  annual.  Its  weed  enemies  are  broom  sedge,  Ber- 
muda, burdock  and  sour  dock.  It  is  a  heavy  feeder  on  nitrogen. 
The  source  of  seed  should  be  southern  Texas.  It  is  best  adapted 
to  a  clayey  soil  or  sandy  loam  with  clay  subsoil. 

Bur  clover  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best  clovers  for  this  country. 
While  it  does  not  afford  very  good  grazing,  it  is  one  of  our  greatest 
soil-improvers.  This  year  I  obtained  50  bushels  of  seed  from  one- 
third  of  an  acre.  The  seed  was  harvested  the  middle  of  June.  I 
have  now  growing  on  the  patch,  corn,  cowpeas,  German  millet  and 
sorghum  and  these  crops  are  as  fine  as  I  ever  saw  on  the  rich  soils 
of  Kentucky. 

Crimson  clover  is  also  a  splendid  clover.  It  makes  good  hay  and 
puts  the  soil  in  good  shape.  Japan  clover  or  lespedeza  is  a  splendid 
pasture  clover.  Red  clover  can  be  grown  with  us  after  the  land  has 
been  made  rich.  White  clover  is  a  very  good  plant  for  our  pastures. 
It  does  well  in  a  pasture  of  Texas  bluegrass.  Orchard  grass  prob- 
ably comes  next  to  Texas  bluegrass.  We  get  from  \l/2  to  2  tons 
of  hay  on  our  soils  that  have  been  improved.  Redtop  also  does  well, 
and  Johnson  grass,  while  it  is  a  pest  in  our  cornfields,  is  a  splendid 
meadow  grass.  We  get  from  2  to  3  tons  per  acre,  and  sometimes 
as  much  as  4  tons  on  our  rich  bottom  lands.  I  would  place  the 
legumes  in  this  order:  Cowpeas,  soybeans,  Russian  vetch,  Florida 
beggarweed,  bur  clover,  and  crimson  clover. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. — Prof.  B.  W.  Kilgore  of  the  North  Carolina 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Raleigh:  The  best  grass  for  pasture  in 
the  eastern  two-thirds  of  the  state  is  unquestionably  Bermuda.  We 
can  hardly  say  there  is  a  second-best,  though  Japan  clover  or  les- 
pedeza with  Bermuda  will  likely  occupy  second  place.  On  our  low, 
wet  and  valley  lands  which  furnish  most  of  the  pasturage  for  the 
eastern  two-thirds  of  the  state,  there  are  a  number  of  native  grasses 
which  give  good  pasturage.  For  the  western  third  of  the  state 


NORTH   CAROLINA   GRASSES  399 

bluegrass  stands  first,  with  redtop  second  and  timothy  or  tall 
meadow  oatgrass  third  and  fourth.  For  the  Piedmont  and  moun- 
tain sections  we  recommend  red  clover,  timothy  and  redtop.  For 
the  eastern  or  sandy  portion  of  the  state  we  recommend  Italian  rye 
and  tall  meadow  oatgrass  for  hay.  As  to  clovers  for  the  Piedmont 
and  mountain  sections,  red  clover  stands  first  and  for  the  eastern 
part  crimson  clover,  though  crimson  clover  is  grown  as  a  winter 
crop  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  mountains  and  in  the  Piedmont 
section. 

For  the  coastal  plain  section  the  best  grasses  for  pasturage  pur- 
poses are  Bermuda  grass  (root  cuttings),  redtop,  orchard  grass, 
white  clover,  Japan  clover,  mammoth  clover,  alsike  clover. 

Mixtures  for  permanent  pastures  are,  No.  1 :  Bermuda  grass 
(root  cuttings).  One  every  12"  in  2'  furrows.  Cuttings  should  be 
about  4"  long.  Japan  clover,  12  pounds.  No.  2 :  redtop,  20  pounds ; 
mammoth  clover,  10  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre  30  pounds.  No.  3 : 
Orchard  grass,  10  pounds;  redtop,  10  pounds;  tall  meadow  oat,  7 
pounds;  meadow  fescue,  7  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  34  pounds. 

For  a  permanent  pasture  in  low  woodland,  No.  1 :  Redtop,  14 
pounds;  perennial  rye,  10  pounds;  tall  meadow  oat,  5  pounds; 
alsike  clover,  5  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  34  pounds. 

Grasses  for  pasturage  purposes  in  the  Piedmont  and  mountain 
sections:  Redtop,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  bluegrass,  mammoth 
clover,  alsike  clover,  white  clover,  red  clover. 

Best  grasses  for  meadows :  Redtop,  fodder  grass,  bluegrass, 
meadow  fescue,  orchard  grass,  tall  meadow  oat,  Japan  clover,  mam- 
moth clover,  red  clover,  alsike  clover. 

Mixtures  for  permanent  pasture,  No.  1 :  Orchard  grass,  10  pounds ; 
tall  meadow  oat,  10  pounds ;  bluegrass,  5  pounds,  red  clover,  5 
pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30  pounds.  No.  2:  Orchard  grass,  10 
pounds;  redtop,  10  pounds;  blnegrass,  4  pounds;  red  clover,  6 
pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30  pounds.  No.  3 :  Timothy,  10  pounds ; 
meadow  fescue,  5  pounds;  bluegrass,  5  pounds;  mammoth  clover, 
10  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30  pounds. 

For  meadows,  No.  1 :  Timothy,  14  pounds ;  redtop,  10  pounds ; 
mammoth  clover,  6  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre  30  pounds.  No.  2 : 
Redtop,  25  pounds;  alsike  clover,  5  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30 
pounds. 

For  permanent  pastures  in  woodland  (mountain  sides),  No.  I: 
Orchard  grass,  14  pounds;  redtop,  7  pounds;  tall  meadow  oat,  6 


400  MEADOWS   AND    PASTURES 

pounds;  bluegras?,  3  pounds;   red  clover,  5  pounds.     Seeding  pa 
acre,  35  pounds. 

For  permanent  pasture  in  creek  bottoms  and  other  low  lands,  No. 
,1:  Timothy,  14  pounds;  redtop,  10  pounds;  alsike  clover,  6  pounds. 
No.  2:  Redtop,  24  pounds;  alsike  clover,  6  pounds.  Seeding  per 
acre,  30  pounds.  No.  3  :  Redtop,  14  pounds;  meadow  fescue,  10 
pounds;  white  clover,  6  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30  pounds. 
No.  4  :  Redtop,  14  pounds;  tall  meadow  oat,  10  pounds;  fowl 
meadow  fescue,  6  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30  pounds.  No.  5: 
Redtop,  14  pounds;  tall  meadow  fescue,  10  pounds;  Canada  blue- 
grass,  6  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre,  30  pounds.  No.  6  :  Tall 
meadow  oat,  24  pounds ;  alsike  clover,  6  pounds.  Seeding  per  acre, 
30  pounds. 

WYOMING.— Prof.  Aven  Nelson,  Secretary  of  the  Wyoming  State 
Board  of  Horticulture,  Laramie :  Until  within  comparatively  recent 
years  we  have  depended  very  largely  on  the  native  grasses  both  for 
pasture  and  for  meadow.  Now,  however,  we  are  growing  a  number 
of  standard  grasses  in  meadows  and  to  some  extent  pastures  are 
being  made.  Of  the  introduced  grasses  I  think  timothy  takes  first 
place  as  a  hay  grass  and  bluegrass  and  redtop  as  pasture  grasses. 
It  is  scarcely  worth  naming  any  legume  other  than  alfalfa.  It  is 
grown  very  extensively  now  and  is  without  doubt  our  most  valu- 
able forage  plant.  Red  and  alsike  clover  are  also  used,  but  hold  a 
distinctly  secondary  place. 

TEXAS.— Prof.  H,  H.  Harrington,  Director  of  the  Texas  Experi- 
ment Stations,  Fort  Worth:  We  have  no  grass  comparable  to 
Bermuda  in  all  that  part  of  the  state  where  rainfall  is  sufficient 
to  produce  a  proper  growth,  say  east  of  the  100th  meridian,  or 
where  rainfall  of  from  22  to  25"  exists.  West  of  this  line  where  the 
rainfall  is  lighter,  the  various  mesquite  grasses  and  grama  grass 
are  the  best  grazing  grasses.  A  variety  of  the  mesquite  known  as 
Tobosa  along  the  plains  and  valleys  north  and  east  of  Davis  Moun- 
tains is  an  excellent  pasture  grass  and  makes  a  good  quality  of  hay, 
the  hay  being  preferred  by  liverymen  to  alfalfa;  but  when  the  grass 
gets  dry  in  the  field  in  winter  it  becomes  very  tough,  and  of  course 
less  valuable.  Where  the  rainfall  is  more,  rescue  grass  and  bur 
clover  succeed  well  and  a  mixture  of  these  sown  in  alfalfa  sod 
makes  desirable  pasturage.  The  bur  clover  serves  for  winter  graz- 
ing, and  early  in  the  spring  the  rescue  grass  comes  up  in  the 


GRASSES    IN    TEXAS  401 

clover,  and  this  is  followed  by  the  Bermuda.  Lespedeza,  or  Japan 
clover  does  fairly  well  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  It  like  Ber- 
muda is  especially  valuable  to  prevent  hillside  washing.  It  will 
grow  on  very  thin  land  and  thrives  on  such  land  much  better  than 
Bermuda,  but  it  requires  more  rainfall  and  more  sunshine  to  succeed 
best.  In  the  Panhandle,  orchard  grass  and  Kentucky  bluegrass 
do  well.  I  would  put  Bermuda  as  the  best  for  pasture  in  the 
central  and  eastern  part  of  the  state.  In  the  western  part  the  mes- 
quite  grass  and  in  the  eastern  part  crab  grass  perhaps  would  be 
second  to  Bermuda,  this  to  follow  rescue  grass  in  the  spring. 
Lespedeza  for  summer  pasture  and  bur  clover  for  winter  pasture 
among  the  clovers.  Of  course  where  alfalfa  can  be  grown  it  is 
the  best  pasture  clover,  especially  for  hogs  and  almost  equally  good 
for  horses ;  but  Bermuda  has  so  much  wider  adaptability  that  it  is 
superior  even  to  alfalfa  in  general  utility.  Crab  grass  requires  con- 
siderable rainfall.  It  is  of  course  in  the  nature  of  a  farm  pest, 
especially  detrimental  to  alfalfa.  At  the  same  time  it  affords  good 
fall  pasturage  and  makes  an  excellent  hay. 

For  meadows,  Johnson  grass  is  perhaps  superior  to  all  others. 
Buffalo  grass  or  Colorado  bottom  grass  makes  an  excellent  hay,  but 
its  growth  is  confined  mainly  to  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state. 
It  comes  up  as  a  volunteer  in  the  cornfield  after  the  last  plowing; 
is  cut  after  the  corn  has  been  gathered,  and  is  frequently  more 
valuable  than  the  corn  crop;  but  if  put  in  a  meadow  alone  at  least 
2  cuttings  or  perhaps  3  can  be  obtained.  We  have  had  most  excellent 
success  with  it  at  our  Beeville  station.  In  every  part  of  the  state 
sorghum  is  a  valuable  hay  plant.  A  mixture  of  native  grasses 
in  the  black  prairie  belt  of  the  state,  especially  about  Forney,  fur- 
nishes a  valuable  hay.  This  is  true  also  of  the  coast  prairie  belt 
from  Beaumont  to  Victoria ;  but  south  Texas  hay  is  very  much 
less  valuable  than  the  north  Texas  hay,  from  native  grass.  Prac- 
tically nothing  has  been  done  in  this  state  in  the  way  of  fertilizing 
hay  meadows,  but  what  has  been  done  leads  clearly  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  cottonseed-meal  scattered  broadcast  in  the  fall  of  the  year, 
or  late  winter,  will  give  most  beneficial  results — 300  to  500  pounds 
per  acre.  Texas  is  so  large  with  a  corresponding  variation  of  soil  and 
climate  that  it  would  be  difficult  within  the  limitations  of  a  letter 
to  give  more  explicit  information. 

The  most  favorable  grass  for  summer  pasture  that  we  have  is  Ber- 
muda, although  alfalfa  after  it  has  been  established  two  or  three 


402  MEADOWS   AND    PASTURES 

years  and  when  it  can  be  irrigated  will  stand  rather  heavy  pasturage, 
and  hogs  and  horses  especially  do  remarkably  well  on  it.  I  recently 
witnessed  in  the  Toyah  Valley  30  mares  with  foal  running  on 
alfalfa  as  an  exclusive  feed,  and  the  mares  were  seal-fat,  with  udders 
like  those  of  milk  cows.  For  a  winter  pasture,  bur  clover  is  ex- 
cellent from  Waco  south  in  the  rainbelt,  for  hogs  and  cattle.  Horses 
eat  it  indifferently.  Rescue  grass  in  the  early  spring  is  excellent 
pasturage.  In  the  northwestern  part,  especially  where  irrigation 
can  be  practiced,  Kentucky  bluegrass  does  well. 

Prof.  H.  Ness,  Horticulturist  of  the  Texas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Stations,  College  Station:  I  send  you  a  list  of  a  few  impor- 
tant grasses  with  such  extemporary  notes  and  remarks  as  I  can 
make  in  a  very  short  time.  Curly  mesquite  is  found  over  the 
entire  prairie  district  from  Parker  county  west  and  south  clear 
to  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  grows  to  be  about 
6"  to  12"  high ;  is  a  runner,  forming  a  dense  sod.  As  pasture  grass 
for  the  arid  West  this  has  no  superior,  inasmuch  as  it  cures  into 
the  best  of  hay  in  a  dry  season,  recovers  itself  and  is  succulent  and 
green  in  a  very  few  hours  after  a  shower,  and  is  exceedingly 
nutritious.  Its  power  of  resisting  drouth  is  remarkable.  The 
leaves  may  dry  and  curl;  hence  the  name  "curly",  and  the  stems 
may  dry  until  they  burn  as  easy  as  hay,  and  are  actually  dead, 
but  the  joints  preserve  the  vitality  very  much  after  the  manner 
of  seeds,  and  are  evidently  store-houses  of  nutritive  matter  that 
readily  become  useful  as  propagators  of  the  plants  after  a  rain. 

Paspalum  dilatatum,  Poir,  is  found  mostly  in  the  eastern  half  and 
agricultural  portion  of  Texas,  especially  on  wet  prairies,  where  it 
makes  a  quick  growth  very  early  in  the  season,  continuing  to  grow 
until  frost,  so  long  as  moisture  is  abundant.  It  is  a  perennial,  but 
is  not  a  runner.  The  stems  are  ascending  and  the  foliage  very 
heavy,  with  large,  succulent  leaves.  This  is  one  of  the  best  pasture 
grasses  and  also  meadow  plants  of  eastern  Texas.  It  is  an  especially 
good  meadow  plant  where  the  land  is  too  wet  for  ordinary  crops. 

Carpet  grass  is  found  over  the  moister  portion  of  the  coast 
country  clear  to  the  Red  River,  throughout  the  forest  belt  of  east 
Texas.  It  is  common  in  low,  wet,  open  places,  and  seems  to 
delight  especially  in  a  compact,  close  soil.  It  starts  growth  very 
early  in  the  spring  and  frequently  remains  in  green  and  growing 
condition  until  Christmas,  or  until  killed  by  severe  frost.  It  is  a 
runner  and  affords  a  sod  so  thick  that  no  other  grasses  or  weeds 


TEXAS    GRASSES    AND    HAYS  403 

can  readily  get  a  good  hold  on  the  same  ground.  Like  all  other 
grasses,  however,  it  avoids  shady  places,  yet  it  constitutes  the 
principal  native  pasture  plant,  as  well  as  meadow  plant,  for  east 
Texas.  This  grass  derives  the  name  "carpet  grass"  from  its  carpet- 
like  sod.  Cattle  relish  it  very  much,  even  more  than  they  do  Ber- 
muda grass  and  very  much  more  than  they  do  Paspalum  dilatatum. 

Buckley  is  called  the  "Colorado  bottom  grass"  in  Texas.  It  is  an 
annual  about  3'  tall  and  is  generally  found  throughout  plowed 
ground  over  a  large  portion  of  middle  Texas,  especially  the  black 
land  between  the  Colorado  and  Brazos  Rivers.  In  this  district  it 
is  highly  prized  as  a  hay  plant,  as  it  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
nutritious  hays  and  very  abundant  yields.  It  readily  reseeds  itself, 
and  starts  its  growth1  in  June.  It  may  readily  be  cut  several  times 
during  the  summer  in  the  rainy  season  before  the  root  is  exhausted. 

Para  grass  is  a  very  coarse  but  nutritious  annual  3'  to 
6'  tall.  It  has  especially  taken  hold  of  the  alluvial  irrigated  lands 
of  the  western  coast  country.  It  is  not  very  much  cultivated  in 
Texas  due  perhaps  to  the  fact  that  the  people  are  not  well  acquaint- 
ed with  it,  but  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  it  speedily  occupies  all 
cultivated  lands  not  continually  plowed  during  the  summer,  giving 
immense  crops  of  the  very  best  hay. 

Bouteloua  Oligostachya,  is  one  of  the  many  so-called  "grama- 
grasses"  of  the  western  plains.  It  is  a  perennial  and  a  bunch  grass, 
but  the  bunches  crowd  each  other  so  as  to  form  almost  a  contin- 
uous sod.  It  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  highly  prized 
grasses  of  the  cattle-raising  belt,  having  the  same  quality  of  the 
grasses  of  the  arid  region,  namely,  curing  into  hay  during 
the  dry  weather  and  speedily  recovering  its  green  and  succulent 
nature  after  a  shower.  Besides  this,  there  are  several  other  species 
of  Bouteloua,  all  highly  valued  by  cattlemen,  and  nearly  all  cover- 
ing the  same  area ;  that  is,  the  great  plains  west  of  the  100th  meri- 
dian. 

Buffalo  grass  is  found  in  great  abundance 'over  the  great  prairies 
west  of  the  so-called  "cross  timbers"  in  Texas.  It  is  a  low,  compact 
growth,  giving  a  patch  of  it  the  appearance  of  a  well-cared-for  lawn, 
inasmuch  as  the  leaf  shoots  only  reach  the  height  of  4"  to  6",  but 
the  herbage  is  abundant,  as  it  is  very  dense.  This  grass  besides 
being  one  of  the  most  highly-prized  pasture  plants  of  Texas,  is 
exceedingly  suitable  for  lawn  purposes.  It  has  a  vivid  green  color 
and  even  growth,  which  makes  it  superior  for  that  purpose  to 


404  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Bermuda  grass,  and  also  the  fact  that  it  is  readily  killed  by 
cultivation.  It  can  stand  a  great  amount  of  tramping  and  drouth. 
In  appearance  it  is  similar  to  Bermuda  grass,  except  that  the  leaves 
are  more  narrow,  and  the  shoots  of  more  even  height.  The  two 
grasses  can  readily  keep  the  same  area  without  being  one  too  strong 
for  the  other.  The  only  difficulty  with  this  grass  is  that  it  produces 
seed  in  such  small  quantities  that  its  distribution  and  propagation 
are  carried  on  by  means  of  pieces  of  sod  or  runners.  Otherwise, 
it  would  undoubtedly  be  preferred  to  Bermuda.  It  can  also  grow 
outside  of  the  arid  region.  Here  at  College  Station,  with  a  rainfall 
of  36"  annually,  I  have  found  dense  patches  of -it  holding  its  own 
against  the  other  grasses. 

UTAH. — Prof.  Lewis  A.  Merrill,  Director  of  the  Utah  Experiment 
Station,  Salt  Lake  City :  In  recent  years  we  have  found  that  brome 
grass  is  the  very  best  grass  we  can  grow  on  our  arid  lands.  It  was 
introduced  in  the  state  some  12  years  ago,  and  its  growth  has  been 
gradually  extended  until  now  there  are  thousands  of  acres  of  land 
lying  above  the  irrigation  canal  seeded  to  brome  grass.  We  find 
that  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  get  a  good  seedbed  before  seeding. 
If  we  attempt  to  seed  it  on  the  barren  hillsides  without  preparation 
of  a  proper  seedbed  the  result  is  a  failure.  However,  where  the 
seedbed  is  properly  prepared  and  the  seed  drilled  in  at  the  rate 
of  12  to  15  pounds  per  acre  we  get  an  excellent  stand.  The  grass 
yields  when  cut  for  hay  from  \}/2  to  2l/2  tons  per  acre.  It  makes 
a  splendid  aftermath,  and  thus  makes  a  very  profitable  growth  for 
cheap  lands.  We  have  tried  a  large  number  of  grasses  on  these  arid 
lands,  including  Agropyron  spicatum,  Elymus  triticoides,  Elymus 
condensatus;  also  orchard  grass,  tall  meadow  oatgrass,  and  perennial 
ryegrass.  None  of  these  has  given  satisfaction.  They  have  not 
made  a  good  stand,  and  after  six  years'  experimental  work  with 
these  varieties  on  arid  lands  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
brome  grass_is  practically  the  only  one  of  the  list  that  we  can 
recommend  to  our  farmers  for  arid  lands.  We  have  tried  brome 
under  irrigation,  but  we  prefer  some  other  grasses  under  these 
conditions. 

For  a  pasture  grass  under  irrigation  we  have  found  none  that 
begins  to  equal  in  importance  Kentucky  bluegrass.  It  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  list  as  a  single  grass  for  pasture  under  irrigation.  As  a 
second  choice  under  irrigation,  I  would  place  brome  grass.  I  am 


GRASSES  IN   UTAH  405 

free  to  say,  however,  that  in  my  opinion  we  would  make  a  very 
serious  mistake,  on  our  irrigated  lands,  if  we  confined  ourselves  to 
one  or  two  grasses.  For  our  benchlands  under  irrigation  I  would 
recommend  the  following  mixture :  Kentucky  blue  grass,  6  pounds ; 
meadow  fescue,  3  pounds;  perennial  ryegrass,  7  pounds;  red  clover, 
2  pounds ;  redtop,  6  pounds ;  orchard  grass,  3  pounds ;  white  clover, 
2  pounds;  lucern,  2  pounds.  This  mixture  is  used  on  our  experi- 
ment station  pasture. 

For  light  sandy  soil  under  irrigation  I  would  use  the  following 
mixture :  Kentucky  bluegrass,  8  pounds ;  meadow  fescue,  16  pounds ; 
tall  meadow  oatgrass,  5  pounds ;  Bromus  inermis,  5  pounds ;  white 
clover,  2  pounds.  For  our  low  moist  lands  we  have  found  the 
following  mixture  gives  excellent  results :  Perennial  ryegrass,  8 
pounds;  redtop,  10  pounds;  Rhode  Island  bed  grass,  4  pounds; 
meadow  fescue,  2  pounds ;  timothy,  2  pounds ;  alsike  clover,  5 
pounds ;  white  clover,  2  pounds. 

Of  course  for  meadow  the  crop  mainly  grown  here  is  timothy 
and  clover.  Hay  from  meadows  of  this  kind  sells  at  from  $10 
to  $12  per  ton,  while  alfalfa  in  good  condition  sells  at  $5  to  $6 
per  ton.  I  think  this  is  a  mistake,  but  it  is  the  practice  here.  I  much 
prefer  a  ton  of  alfalfa  for  feed  to  any  of  the  domestic  animals  to 
a  ton  of  timothy  or  redtop.  A  number  of  our  farmers  make  a  prac- 
tice of  seeding  orchard  grass  with  alfalfa,  since  orchard  grass 
matures  about  at  the  same  time,  and  it  is  claimed  that  because 
it  dries  so  readily  it  absorbs  part  of  the  moisture  from  the  alfalfa 
and  enables  them  to  put  it  into  mounds  greener  than  if  the  alfalfa 
is  sown  alone.  We  have  found  it  a  very  desirable  practice  to  cover 
our  pastures  with  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  at  the  rate  of  about 
15  tons  per  acre  once  in  three  years.  The  manuring  is  done  during 
the  winter  season,  and  in  the  spring  a  sharptoothed  harrow  is  run 
over  the  ground  two  or  three  times,  scratching  the  surface  very 
thoroughly. 

We  find  it  necessary  about  once  in  three  years  to  resced,  and 
this  is  done  after  the  harrowing,  and  just  before  the  spring  rair;s 
begin.  Our  alfalfa  fields  can  be  renewed  and  kept  in  splendid  con- 
dition by  the  use  of  the  disk  harrow.  The  field  is  thoroughly 
disked  and  cross-disked  along  in  February  or  March,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  disking  again  after  the  removal  of  the  first  crop  is  gaining 
many  advocates.  During  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  intro- 
duced in  this  state  a  pest  to  the  alfalfa  crop,  the  alfalfa  weevil. 


406  MEADOWS   AND    PASTURES 

Our  entomologist  recommends  the  disking  of  alfalfa  fields  after  the 
removal  of  each  crop  in  order  to  exterminate  the  insect.  The 
practice  has  been  found  effective  in  destroying  the  insect  and  has 
also  resulted  in  renewing  the  fields  in  a  splendid  way. 

WASHINGTON.— Prof.  R.  W.  Thatcher,  Director  of  the  Washing- 
ton Experiment  Station,  Pullman:  Alfalfa  is  the  leading  hay  plant 
in  all  our  warmer  irrigated  belts  that  are  not  used  strictly  for  fruit- 
growing or  vegetable-gardening.  It  is  also  becoming  more  and 
more  prominent  in  the  southeastern  part  of  our  state  for  both  a 
pasture  and  a  hay  plant  for  hogs  and  what  few  cattle  our  wheat- 
farmers  may  keep.  It  is  just  beginning  to  be  grown  in  the  western 
part  of  Washington  and  enough  has  been  done  to  show  that  all  that 
part  of  our  state  seems  to  need  inoculation  for  alfalfa,  but  that  it 
will  do  well  on  any  of  the  well-drained  soils  of  western  Washington 
if  such  inoculation  is  given.  I  believe  that  it  will  become  a  very 
prominent  hay  and  pasture  plant  in  western  Washington.  Nothing 
has  been  done  thus  far  in  the  matter  of  fertilizing  for  alfalfa.  The 
usual  practice  is  to  seed  without  a  nurse-crop. 

Clover  is  a  very  important  forage  plant  in  western  Washington, 
and  is  just  beginning  to  be  grown  to  a  very  limited  degree  in  the 
easternmost  part  of  the  wheatbelt  where  the  rainfall  is  above  20" 
per  annum.  At  Pullman  our  trials  on  the  experiment  station  have 
shown  clover  to  be  as  valuable  as  alfalfa  in  short  rotations,  as  the 
yield  has  been  about  equal  to  that  of  alfalfa  and  it  is  got  rid  of  by 
plowing  while  alfalfa  requires  persistent  cultivation  before  it  is  con- 
quered. To  secure  a  stand  of  clover  with  certainty  in  eastern 
Washington,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  the  seedbed  in  "the 
spring  in  such  a  way  that  a  good,  firm  bottom  will  be  secured 
with  a  shallow,  mellow  surface  mulch,  then  seed  with  an  ordinary 
grain  drill,  slipping  the  spouts  of  the  drill  from  the  grain  box  onto 
the  grass  seedbox  conducting  the  clover  seed  into  the  shoes  of  the 
drill,  then  setting  the  shoes  to  run  shallow.  In  this  way  the  seed 
is  placed  where  the  little  seedling  will  not  be  destroyed  with  one  or 
two  hot  drying  days.  Seeded  in  this  manner  we  find  no  more  diffi- 
culty in  securing  a  stand  of  clover  than  of  oats.  With  the  frequent 
rains  that  occur  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  in  western  Wash- 
ington such  special  pains  are  not  necessary  in  seeding. 

Alsike  clover  is  useful  in  our  state  in  very  limited  acreages 
where  the  drainage  is  poor  or  the  land  is  subject  to  overflow  the 


GRASSES  IN  WISCONSIN  407 

early  part  of  the  season.  Timothy  is  grown  quite  exclusively  along 
the  streams  close  to  the  mountains  in  both  the  eastern  and  western 
part  of  our  state.  This  grass  is  used  very  largely  for  hay.  In 
Kittitas  Valley  irrigated  land  is  largely  used  for  this  purpose.  With 
easy  transportation  to  a  good  market  like  Seattle  the  better  farmers 
in  Kittitas  Valley  are  able  to>  secure  some  seasons  nearly  $100  an 
acre  gross  receipts  from  their  timothy  hay.  It  is  grown  to  some 
extent  in  western  Washington,  though  certain  other  grasses  are 
grown  in  western  Washington  more  proportionately  than  in  like 
latitude  in  any  other  part  of  the  United  States. 

For  pasture,  our  best  grass  is  orchard  grass,  which  is  grown  prin- 
cipally in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  but  it  is  being  mixed  with 
alfalfa  by  a  few  farmers  in  our  irrigated  belt  in  order  to  overcome 
the  danger  of  bloat  in  live  stock  when  used  for  pasture. 

Italian  and  English  ryegrasses  are  grown  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  western  Washington  for  pasture  purposes,  but  are  of  no  value 
in  any  other  part  of  the  state.  Tall  oatgrass  has  been  found  to  do 
fairly  well  in  the  lighter  lands  of  western  Washington,  but  it 
matures  too  early  to  make  a  good  hay  plant  in  that  section  because 
the  rains  are  so  frequent  up  to  July  that  hay  harvest  is  very 
uncertain. 

WISCONSIN. — Prof.  A.  L.  Stone  of  the  Department  of  Agronomy, 
Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison:  There  are  only  three 
or  four  grasses  of  real  importance  in  Wisconsin.  We  have  a  large 
number  of  grasses,  both  cultivated  and  native,  and  many  are  valu- 
able agriculturally.  But  for  pastures  and  meadows  there  are  but 
three  or  four  which  are  in  common  use.  We  consider  Kentucky 
bluegrass  by  far  the  best  grass  which  we  have  for  pasture.  While 
it  does  not  equal  some  other  grasses,  like  brome  or  meadow 
fescue,  for  instance,  in  yields,  it  proves  to  be  the  best  pasture  grass 
for  all  conditions.  In  our  best  pasture  we  have  a  mixture  of  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass  and  white  and  alsike  clovers,  using  but  a  very  little 
however,  of  the  alsike.  On  our  lower  soils  we  use  some  Kentucky 
bluegrass,  a  larger  amount  of  redtop,  white  and  alsike  clovers. 
We  find  that  the  redtop  gives  better  satisfaction  on  the  low  soil  than 
the  Kentucky  bluegrass,  though  a  mixture  of  the  two  gives  very 
good  satisfaction. 

In  the  order  of  their  merit,  I  should  say  that  the  four  best  grasses 
would  be  Kentucky  bluegrass,  redtop,  brome  grass  and  either 


408  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

orchard  grass  or  meadow  fescue.  For  highlands,  we  would  use 
a  mixture  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  white  clover;  for  lowland 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  white  and  alsike  clovers  and  redtop.  For 
meadows  we  use  timothy,  either  alone  or  a  mixture  of  timothy  and 
red  clover  for  the  higher  ground,  timothy  and  alsike  clover  for  the 
lower  ground. 

In  establishing  bluegrass  pastures,  it  is  customary  for  our  farmers 
to  sow  a  mixture  of  timothy,  redtop,  Kentucky  bluegrass,  and  white 
clover.  This  gives  an  opportunity  to  get  at  least  two  crops  of  hay 
from  the  timothy  and  clover,  and  by  the  time  the  timothy  and 
clover  are  gone  we  get  a  fair  sod  of  Kentucky  bluegrass,  and  get  a 
crop  which  may  then  be  pastured.  Ordinarily  the  mixture  for  this 
purpose  would  be  about  15  pounds  of  timothy,  8  pounds  of  red 
clover,  10  pounds  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  2  pounds  of  white 
clover.  This  mixture  for  meadows  would  be  changed  somewhat 
in  regard  to  the  soil,  using  alsike  clover  and  possibly  redtop  and 
Canada  bluegrass  in  place  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  on  low  wet  ground. 

Since  brome  grass  has  become  popular  many  of  our  farmers  are 
mixing  some  of  it  and  also  more  or  less  redtop  in  all  pasture  seeding. 
In  this  way  they  get  grasses  which  are  inclined  to  mature  at  different 
times  of  the  year,  and  so  obtain  a  continuous  pasture. 

Medium  red  clover  is  the  most  popular  of  any  of  the  clovers 
grown  in  the  state.  Alfalfa  where  it  does  well  is  crowding  out  even 
the  red  clover.  Thus  far  we  have  found  very  few  sections  of  the  state, 
however,  where  alfalfa  has  given  very  good  satisfaction.  The  area 
devoted  to  this  plant,  however,  is  rapidly  increasing,  as  we  come  to 
better  understand  the  methods  of  handling  it.  Besides  growing  the 
alfalfa  by  itself,  many  of  our  farmers  have  adopted  the  plan  of 
mixing  in  more  or  less  alfalfa  seed  in  their  timothy  and  clover 
seedings,  .thus  getting  some  alfalfa  in  all  the  hay  grown  on  the 
farm.  This  not  only  adds  to  the  palatability  of  the  hay,  but 
assists  in  establishing  the  bacteria  in  the  soil.  Next  to  these  two 
alsike  clover  is  perhaps  next  in  popularity  and  importance.  It  grows 
especially  well  in  Wisconsin,  and  is  used  to  a  very  large  extent  as 
an  addition  to  our  meadow  mixtures.  Next  in  order  would 
undoubtedly  be  the  mammoth  clover.  All  of  these  give  fairly  good 
satisfaction,  though  the  mammoth  clover  is  slightly  too  coarse  for 
the  best  grade  of  forage. 

Few  farmers  in  Wisconsin  have  yet  resorted  to  the  use  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  We  have  advocated  the  use  of  barnyard  manure 


HAWAIIAN    GRASS   CROPS  409 

and  the  rotation  of  crops  to  preserve  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and 
discouraged  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  programme  for 
the  ordinary  farmer  is  as  follows :  The  whole  pasture  is  given  a 
good  coating  of  barnyard  manure  usually  with  a  manure  spreader, 
thus  dropping  the  manure  evenly.  This  is  plowed  down  and  corn 
planted  the  next  year.  Corn  is  followed  by  one  year  of  grain, 
either  oats  or  barley,  and  the  field  is  seeded  to  timothy,  red  clover, 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  white  clover,  in  the  proportions  already  men- 
tioned. The  next  year  hay  is  cut,  depending  on  circumstances. 
The  field  is  either  left  for  hay  the  second  year,  or  is  turned  into 
pasture.  Ordinarily  the  farmer  runs  it  two  years  to  hay,  and  then 
one  year  to  pasture,  depending  on  the  rotation  of  crops  adopted. 
We  have  found  that  by  this  system  we  have  been  able  to  get  very 
satisfactory  crops  of  grain  and  hay.  Nothing  other  than  the  ap- 
plication of  barnyard  manure  and  the  change  of  crops  has  thus 
far  been  done  to  increase  the  yield  of  clover  in  this  state. 

HAWAII. — Prof.  F.  G.  Krau.ss,  in  charge  of  Rice  and  Cotton 
Investigations,  Hawaii  Experiment  Station,  Honolulu:  Bermuda  is 
a  valuable  pasture  grass,  thriving  throughout  the  Hawaiian  group. 
It  is  very  drouth-resistant,  spreads  rapidly,  and  is  difficult  to  eradi- 
cate. It  responds  wonderfully  to  irrigation  and  tillage,  is  rarely 
fertilized;  but  results  from  cattle  droppings  in  pastures  suggest  that 
manuring  would  pay  well.  It  is  rarely  used  as  a  soiling  crop,  but 
lawn  mowings  of  this  grass  are  commonly  fed  to  family  horses  and 
cows  with  good  results. 

Para  grass  is  extensively  planted  by  dairymen  throughout  Hawaii, 
and  is  considered  a  nutritious  feed  for  both  cows  and  horses. 
Under  irrigation  it  yields  4  crops  in  12  months.  The  writer  has 
made  weighings  from  fertilized  plots  averaging  20  tons  of  green 
fodder  per  acre,  per  single  cutting.  The  crop  is  planted  from 
cuttings  of  the  mature  stems,  which  are  long,  close- jointed  trailers. 
Furrows  are  plowed  18"  to  36"  apart  and  the  cuttings  a  foot  long 
set  a  few  inches  apart  in  the  furrow,  which  is  then  partly  filled 
in  and  then  irrigated.  Often  yields  are  obtained  when  the  plants 
are  a  year  old.  Fields  require  renewing,  or  at  least  plowing  once 
in  five  years  or  so.  It  is  principally  used  as  a  soiling  crop  and 
should  not  be  permitted  to  get  too  old  to  avoid  woodiness. 

Water  grass  is  a  valuable  Australian  "bunch"  grass  gradually 
meeting  with  the  recognition  it  deserves.  Imported  seed  germinates 


410  MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 

poorly.  It  makes  great  dense  clumps  of  tender  nutritious  forage  or 
fodder  greedily  eaten  by  all  kinds  of  live  stock.  It  responds  well  to 
irrigation  and  fertilization.  The  clumps  may  be  divided  and  replant- 
ed, such  renewal  being  advisable  every  three  or  five  years.  When 
well  established  in  pastures  it  spreads  through  natural  seed  distri- 
bution. 

Rhodes  grass,  a  comparatively  recently  introduced  grass,  is  meet- 
ing with  high  praise  from  all  who  have  tried  it.  It  is  very  drouth- 
resistant  and  yields  a  nutritious  grass,  which  may  be  cured  for  hay. 
It  pastures  well  or  may  be  used  for  soiling.  Horses,  cattle  and 
sheep  relish  and  thrive  on  it.  It  spreads  naturally  from  seed, 
or  may  be  propagated  by  root  division. 

Buffalo  grass  is  another  valuable  introduced  pasture  grass.  It 
produces  a  rather  dwarf  growth,  but  a  very  dense  matting  not  easily 
destroyed  when  once  established.  It  is  propagated  by  root  or 
stem  divisions  as  well  as  by  seed. 

Guinea  grass  is  a  dense,  coarse,  upright  bunch  grass,  attaining 
a  height  of  4'  to  6',  relished  by  stock  when  young  and  tender,  but 
becoming  harsh  with  maturity  it  has  more  limited  use  than  the 
other  sorts  mentioned.  It  is  very  hardy  against  adverse  conditions, 
and  finds  favor  on  that  account. 

Many  grasses  especially  suited  for  range  pastures  have  been 
introduced  into  Hawaii  during  the  past  dozen  years,  but  the 
writer  is  not  familiar  with  their  conditions.  In  a  general  way 
I  have  understood  that  the  peas,  bent  grasses,  bromes,  gramas,  fes- 
tucas  and  rye  grasses  have  become  more  or  less  established  through- 
out the  group. 

Alfalfa  is  practically  the  only  "clover"  grown  in  Hawaii.  It 
thrives  luxuriantly  under  favorable  conditions  and  yields  10  to  12 
cuttings  annually.  Its  culture  is  continually  being  extended  and 
bids  fair  to  become  the  leading  fodder  where  conditions  are  favor- 
able for  its  growth. 

ENGLAND.— James  Peter,  Estate  Agent,  Berkeley  Castle,  Berkeley: 
As  to  pasture  management,  for  fertilizers  nothing  can  beat  basic 
slag  for  improving  the  herbage  and  giving  a  quick  return.  It  is 
marvelous  the  result  it  has  on  our  cold  clay  soils  with  a  dressing 
of  5  and  6  cwts.  to  the  acre.  Farmyard  manure  well  made  is  the 
most  complete  manure  of  all  others,  but  any  kind  of  dressing 
if  only  fresh  earth,  will  do  pasture  land  good.  Ditch  cleanings  and 


ENGLISH    PASTURE   WORK  411 

pond  scrapings  mixed  with  lime  in  a  composite  heap  makes  a  fine 
dressing  for  pasture  land.  Ground  bones  of  4  cwt.  to  the  acre  is 
a  dressing  that  should  be  applied  to  all  grazing  pasture  land  once 
in  7  years.  All  pastures  should  be  well  harrowed  in  the  winter  to 
remove  the  moss  that  grows  in  the  bottom ;  the  harrow  helps  to 
stimulate  the  grass  roots. 


INDEX. 


Absorption,  by  roots,  18. 

Acid  phosphate,  with  manure,  34. 

Aftermath,  not  pastured,  29. 

too  heavy,  39. 

Agropyrum    repens.      (See    Quack- 
grass.  ) 

Agrostis    alba.      (See    redtop.) 
Alabama,   353. 
Alfalfa,   212. 

brome  grass  with,   110. 

care  of,  229. 

cuttings,   242. 

feeding  excess,  24. 

fertilizer    for,    229. 

hay,  235. 

history  of,  214. 

irrigation  for,  246. 

life  of,    244. 

mowing,   234. 

on  Johnson  grass  land,  66. 

pasture  for  sheep,  349. 

seedbed  for,   232. 

seed  drill,  229. 

seeding  of,  230. 

spring  sowing,  228. 

spring  and  summer  seeding,  224. 

varieties  of,  245. 

with  bluegrass,   88. 

with   orchard   grass,    108. 

with  timothy,  30. 
Alopecurus  pratensis,    248. 
Alsike  clover,   compared  with  red, 
155. 

effect  on  cattle,  167. 

likeness  to  redtop,  106. 
Amropyron  divergens,  75. 
Annual  grasses,  for  hay,  68. 
Arabian  millet,   62. 
Arkansas,   355. 
Arrhenatherum  clatius,  60. 
Artemesia,  328. 
Azotobacter,   20,   147. 

Bacteria,  conditions  favoring,  141. 

in  old  sod,  20. 

on  legumes,  135. 
Basic  slag,  experiments  with,  310. 

on  pastures,  273,  301. 
Barley,  nurse  crop  for  alfalfa,  228. 
Beardless   spring   barley,    as   hay, 

70. 

Beggarweed,  364. 
Bermuda  grass,  353,  360. 

choice  of  land  for,  118. 

climate  for,  114. 

eradication  of,  117. 

history  of,    118. 

in  the  south,  116. 

method  of  planting,  122. 


on  poor  soils,   115. 

preparation  of  soil  for,   121. 

propagation  of,   112. 

stem  of,  22. 

with  bur  clover,  20. 
Black  locust,  in  pasture,   323. 
Bloating,    351. 
Bluegrass,  advantages  of,  84. 

and  cowpeas,   276. 

disadvantages  of,   85. 

for  lawns,  84. 

how  came  to  Ohio,   92. 

how  to  distinguish  from  Canada, 
104. 

how  to  seed,   88,   89. 

in  limestone  regions,   80. 

in  timothy,  29. 

mixture  with,  283. 

securing  maximum  yield,  91. 

seeding  of,  85. 

stem  of,  22. 

summary,   99. 

with  alfalfa,  88. 

with  brome  grass,   86. 

with  orchard  grass,  91. 
Bluejoint,    248,    16. 
Bluestem,  75. 
Bonemeal,   for  stock,   271. 

with  salt,  351. 
Boss,  Andrew,  377. 
Boutelona  oligostachya,   403. 
Bridging  pasture,   timothy,   41. 
Brome  grass,  73. 

care  o.f  pasture,   111. 

compared    with    orchard    grass, 
107. 

drouth-resisting   power   of,    109. 

for  animals,  109. 

how  to  sow,  52. 

mixture  with,  283. 

north  of  Ohio  River,   17. 

not  mix  with  orchard,   49. 

seeding  of,  110. 

stem  of,  22. 

value  of,  50. 

when  to  cut,  52. 

with  bluegrass,  86. 
Bromus      inermrs.       (See      brome 

grass. ) 

Bromus  unoiloides,  70. 
Brooks,  William  P.,  388. 
Broom  corn  millets,  71. 
Bulbs,  of  timothy,  29. 
Bull  thistle,   330. 
Bunch  grass,  16. 
Bur  clover,  354,  364,  174. 

with    Bermuda    grass,    20. 
Burnett,   E.   A.,   389. 


(413) 


414 


INDEX 


Calamagrostis    Canadensis.       (See 

Bluejoint.) 

Calvin,  Martin  V.,  366. 
Canada  bluegrass,  100. 

as  lawn  grass,  103. 

how     to     distinguish    from 
Kentucky,   104. 

in  timothy,  29. 

mixture  with,  283. 

quantity  of  seed  to  sow,  103. 

with  orchard  grass,   108. 
Canada  thistles,  329. 
Canary  grass,   seeding  of,   17. 
Capriola   dactylon.    (See  Bermuda 

grass. ) 
Carbonate  of  lime,  258. 

and  legume  growing,  142. 

for  sweetening  soil,  36. 
Carnation  clover,  167. 
Carpet  grass,   124,   353. 
Cattle^  bloat,   152. 

pastured,  350. 
Center,  O.  D.,  367. 
Cereals  for  hay,  time  to  cut,  68. 
Chaetolhloa  italica,  71. 
Chemicals  for  soils,  275. 
Clay  soils,  fertilization  of,  302. 
Clinton,  L.  A.,  383. 
Clovers,  149. 

care  of  when  young,  292. 

fed  close,  22. 

for  feeding,   164. 

grown  with  grasses,  19. 

needing  inoculation,   139. 
.seeding  in  spring,  288. 

sown  with  spring  crop,  158. 

wheat  and  timothy,  32. 

with  orchard  grass,   108. 

with   timothy,    30. 

with  timothy  in  wheat,  159. 
Clover  dodder,    162. 
Clover  hay,  making  of,   161. 
Clover  mixtures,  sowing  of,   160. 
Clover  seed,  growing  of,  162. 

with  dodder,   164. 
Clover-sick  land,   166. 
Cockleburs,    328. 
Colts,  fed  on  pasture,  350. 
Connecticut,  383. 
Corn,  and  cowpeas,   200. 
Cornbelt,  grasses  for,   73. 
Corn  crop,   after  timothy,   303. 
Cotton,  displaced  by  Japan  clover, 

Cotton  cake,  314. 
Cowpeas,   195,   354. 

and  bluegrass,   276. 

with  crimson  clover,   173. 
Crabgrass,   364. 
Crimson  clover,  167,  355. 

as  regenerator,   172. 

climate  and  soil  for,  169. 

how  to  feed,  170. 

sowing  of,   171. 

with  cowpeas,   173. 
Crops,  effect  of  previous  cuttings, 
28. 


Curing  green  grain,  28. 

Dairy  cows,  timothy  unsuited,   25. 

Daisy,  331. 

Danthonia  spicata,   60. 

Delaware,   357. 

Dissolved  bones,  experiments  with, 

310. 

Dock,   330. 
Dodder,   162. 
Drainage,  depth,   257. 

for  poor  lands,   256. 

of  grasslands,  18. 
Drouth,  and  drainage,  258. 
Dry  farming,  grasses  for,  74. 
Dry  weather   crops,   millets,    71. 
Duggar,  J.  F.,  353. 
Dutch  clover,  150. 

Early  cutting  of  timothy,   28. 
Earthworms,  indicate  kind  of  soil, 

221. 

Egyptian  millet,   62. 
England,   410. 
English    bluegrass.      (See    meadow 

fescues. ) 
Erigeron     annuus.       (See      White 

top.) 

Ernst,  William,   391. 
Esparcette,  190. 
Experiments  with  grass  at  home, 

Export  cattle,   on  bluegrass,   92. 

Feed,  danger  in  alfalfa,  25. 
Feeding  on  pastures,  294. 
Feeding  pastures,  300. 
Ferns,    331. 
Fertilization,    diversity   of,    301. 

summary,  322. 
Fertilizers,    on    timothy    meadows, 

34. 

Fescue.      (See    sheep    fescue.) 
Festuca       elatior.        (See       fescue 


Festuca    pratensis.     (See    meadow 

fescue. ) 

Fieldmice,   in  aftermath,  39. 
Field  pea,   192. 
Floats,   with  manure,   34. 
Florida,   358. 
Forage,  of  winter  wheat,  69. 

yields  of,  45. 
Fowl  Meadowgrass,  250. 
Furze,   333. 

Georgia,  366. 

Glycine  hispida,  204. 

Gorse,  333. 

Gramineae.     (See   Grasses.) 

Grass,   bunch,    16. 

manner  of  growth,  22. 

mixtures,  283. 

seeding  of,  280. 

where  most  profitable,  279* 


INDEX 


415 


Grasses,  care  of  when  young,  292. 

characterization  of,  15. 

for  pasture,  75. 

grown  with  clover,   19. 

how  they  feed,  17. 

number  of  species,   15. 

on  peaty  soils,   297. 

time  to  seed,  282. 

with  legumes,   148. 
Grasslands,  drainage  of,  18. 
Grazing,    effect    on    grasses,    293. 
Ground  lime,  310,  36. 
Guinea  grass,   67,  410. 
Gulf  States,  grasses  for,  74. 

Hairy  vetch,   183,   354. 
Harper,  J.  N.,  397. 
Harrington,  H.  H.,  400. 
Harvesting,    future    effect   of,    28. 
Hay,  feeding  value  of  alfalfa,  238. 

from  cereals,  68. 

from  winter  wheat,   69. 

timothy,   16,  20,  23. 
Hayloaders,  236. 
Hawaii,   409. 
Herbage,    effects    of    manure    on, 

304. 

Hoarhound,  329. 
Horse  breeding,  334. 
Horse  manure,  on  pastures,  299. 
Horse  nettle,   329. 
Horses,   effect  of  alfalfa,   25. 

on  Canada  bluegrass,  102. 
Horseweeds,   329. 
Hurdling  system,   338. 
Hutchinson,  W.  L.,  378. 

Illinois,  367. 
Indiana,  370. 
Inoculation,  for  alfalfa,  224. 

methods  of,   138. 

of  soils,  137. 

of  soybeans,    208. 
Ironweeds,  329. 
Irrigation,  for  alfalfa,   246. 
Italian  rye  grass,   56. 

Japan   clover,   188. 
Japanese  sugarcane,   360. 
Jenkins,  E.  H.,  383. 
Jimpson  weed,   329. 
Johnson  grass,  62. 
how  to  eradicate,  65. 

Kansas,  371. 

Kentucky    Bluegrass.      (See    blue- 
grass.  ) 

Kilgore,   B.  W.,  398. 
Knots,   347. 
Krauss,  F.  G.,  409. 

Lambs,  fed  on  pasture,  348. 
Lawns,  of  bluegrass,  84 
Legumes,   133. 

effect  on  soil,  149. 

number  of  species,  14. 

purpose  of,  146,  135. 


value  of,  147. 

with  grasses,  148. 
Lespedeza  striata,   188,   354. 
Letters  from  Experiment  Stations1., 

Lime,  effect  on  milkers,  268. 

experiments  with,   310. 

on  new  grass  land,  282. 

on  pastures,  267. 

test  for,  220. 

where  needed,  219. 

with  salt,   351. 
Linfield,  F.  B.,  388. 
Locust  trees,  333. 
Lolium,  56. 
Lucerne.       ( See   alfalfa. ) 

Mammoth  clover,  152,  160. 
Manure,  how  it  acts  on  soil,  275. 

on  timothy  meadows,   34. 

waste  of  under  trees,  324. 
Manured    grass,    relished    by    ani- 
mals,  298. 
Manuring,  new  grass  land,  282. 

old  land  hayfield,  306. 
Massachusetts,   388. 
Meadow,   life  of  a  timothy,    40. 

top-dressing   of,    359. 
Meadow   fescue,    in   meadow   mix- 
tures,  55. 

mixture  with,   283. 

soil  for,   111. 

value  of,  53. 

with  orchard  grass,  108. 
Meadow  foxtail,  248. 
Meadow  mouse,  in  timothy,  40. 
Meadows,  and  hay  land,    368. 

care  of,  252,  369,  293. 

feeding  of  timothy,  33. 

of  alfalfa,  234. 
Means'  grass,  62. 
Medicago  lupulina,  182. 

maculata,    174. 

obiculata,    175. 
Melilotus  alba,   177. 
Merrill,  Lewis  A.,  404. 
Mice,  remedies  for,   40. 
Michigan,  377. 

Middle  West,  wants  of,   332. 
Milk,  and  lime,  268. 
Millets,   70. 

Mineral  manures,  on  pastures,  297. 
Minnesota,  377. 
Mississippi,    378. 
Missouri,  379. 

Mixture,    for  poorly-drained   land, 
368. 

for  poor  soil.  368. 

for  well-drained   land,    367. 

with  timothy,  32. 
Mixtures    of    grasses,    advantages 

of,  284. 
Moisture,     and    grass    production, 

276. 

Montana,  388. 
Moorhouse,  L.  A.,  382. 
Mosses,  331. 


416 


INDEX 


Mowing,   tall  oat  grass,   62. 

millet,  72. 

time  for  brome  grass,  52. 

timothy,  25. 

Mowing  lands,  top-dressing  of,  37. 
Mucuna  utilis,  202. 
Muhlenbergia   diffusa.     (See   Nim- 
ble-will.) 
Mulleins,   329. 

Natal  grass,  366. 

Nebraska,   389. 

Nelson,  Aven,  400. 

Nelson,  Martin,  355. 

Ness,  H.,  402. 

Nettle,   329. 

New  Hampshire,  383. 

New  York,   385. 

Nimblewill,   130. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  for  timothy,   38. 

Nitrifying      bacteria,       aided      by 

humus,    146. 
Nitrogen,  how  secured  by  legumes, 

135. 

in  soil,  effect  of  manure,  304. 
supply  of,   144. 
Nodular  disease,  300,  347. 
North  Carolina,  398. 
North  Dakota,  394. 
Nurse    crop,    seeding    grass    with, 

287. 

Ohio,  394. 
Oklahoma,  382. 
Onobrychis  sativa,  190. 
Orchard  grass,  73,  353. 

desirability  and  requirements  of, 
107. 

for  animals,   107. 
'     for  cattle,  48. 

mixture,  108,   283. 

not  mix  with  brome,  49. 

quantity  of  seed  to  sow,   108. 

with  bluegrass,  91. 

yield  of,  46. 
Oregon,   395. 

Panicum  maximum,  67. 

molle,  67. 

Para  grass,  358,  67. 
Parasites,   in  sheep  manure,   300. 

of  'sheep,   342. 

in  pastures,  327. 
Paspalum,  124. 

Pastures,    care    of,    252,    293,    323, 
369. 

early  stocking  of,  325. 

effect  of  trees  on,  323. 

feeding  on,  294. 

for   sheep,    341. 

grasses  for,   75. 

improvement  in  England,   309. 

manure  for,   297,   310. 

manure  on,  21. 

mixed  stocking  of,  299. 

of  orchard  grass,  108. 

of  alfalfa,   240. 

productivity  of,  20. 


retaining  moisture,    326. 

rotation   of  stock  in,   32'7. 

•sodbound,  21. 

sweetened  with  lime,  267. 

timothy,   39. 

weeds   in,    328. 
Pasturing,   cattle,   350. 

effects  of  early,   91. 
Pearl  millet,   71. 
Pennisetum  spicatum,   71. 
Percherons,     on     limed     pastures, 

270. 
Permanent    meadow,    of    timothy, 

29. 

Permanent     pastures,      effect     of 
manure   on,    296. 

sheep  on,  340. 
Persimmons,  333. 
Peter,  James,  410. 
Phosphatic  rock,  with  manure,  34. 
Phosphorus,  as  fertilizer,  302. 

in   soils,    297. 
Pighead,   299. 
Pigs,  glean  field,  206. 
Pisum  sativum,  192. 
Plantain,   331. 
Plant  food,  mineral,   18. 
Plowing,  for  new  grass  land,  281. 
Poa  archnifera,   124. 

compressa.     (See    Canada   blue- 
grass.  ) 

praetensis.    (See  Kentucky  blue- 
grass.  ) 

serontina,   250. 
Poison  ivy,  329. 
Poor  soil,  grasses  for,   106,  283. 

sheep  fescue  for,   112. 
Potassium,    in    soils,    297. 

Quackgrass,    eradication    of,     129, 

132. 

establishment  of,  126. 
method  of  rooting,  16. 
roots  of,  22. 

Ragweed,   328. 

Rank    growing    spots    in    pasture, 

o  o  Q 

Red  clover,  152. 

diseases  of,   166. 

habit  of  growth,   154. 

quantity  to  sow,  157. 

seeding  of,  156. 

summary  of,  165. 

with  timothy,  2G. 
Redtop,   353. 

adaptability  of,   44,   205. 

characteristics  of,  104. 

how  to  displace,   44. 

in  mixtures,  106. 

in  timothy,  29. 

leaves  sweetened  soil,  36. 

mixture  with,    283. 

seeding  to,   106. 

soil  for,  42. 

sowing  of,   46. 

stem  of,  22. 

with  orchard  grass,  108.. 


INDEX 


417 


Rescue  grass,   70. 

Rhodes  grass,  410. 

Rhode  Island,  396. 

Rohde,  Carl,  391. 

Roller,  use  of  on  grass,  291. 

Root,  method  of  growth,   18. 

Rooting,  of  quackgrass,   16. 

Rotation  of  crops,  natural,   146. 

Rotation  of  stock,  327. 

Ryegrass,    65,    60. 

Rye  hay,    69. 

Sainfoin,   190. 

Salt,  given  on  pasture,  351.. 
Scarlet  clover,  167. 
Scott,  John  M.,  358. 
Seeds,  adulterated,   156. 

amount  per  acre,  285. 
Seeding  grass,  286. 
Seedlings,  protection  of,   286. 
Shade  in  pastures,   323. 
Shaw,  R.  S.,   377. 
Sheep  bloat,   152. 
.Sheep,  hard  on  timothy,   40. 

on  alfalfa  pasture,    349. 

timothy  unsuited,  25. 

tobacco  to,   341. 

to  eat  whitetop,  40. 
Sheep  fescue,  17,  56. 
Sheep  pastures,  not  sheep 

manured,  300. 
Shepperd,  J.  H.,   394. 

Sodbound   pastures,    21,    64. 
Soil,   for  alfalfa,   216,   220. 

enriched,  in  nitrogen,  141. 

for  meadow,  253. 

judged  by  grass,  102. 

liked  by  red  clover,  156. 

poverty  revealed  by  redtop,   30. 
Soiling  crop,  alfalfa,  241. 

rye  and  vetch  mixture,  188. 

rye  as,  70. 
Soil  nitrogen,  effect  of  manure  on, 

304. 

South  Carolina,  397. 
Soybeans,  204,   355. 

compared    with     cowpeas,     202, 
210. 

inoculation  of,  140. 

with  corn,   200. 
Sparrowhawks,  for  mice,  40. 
Spearmint,   329. 
Spring  crop,  with  clover,   158. 
St.  Augustine  grass,   126. 
Steers,   on  pasture,   352. 

wintered  on  hay,  26. 
Stenotaphrum  dimideaton,   126. 
Stocking  of   pastures,   299. 
Stomach  Worms,  340. 
Stone,  A.  L.,  407. 
Stooling,   15,  22. 
Sugar  cane,  infested  with  Johnson 

grass,    64. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,   310. 
Sulphate  of  potash,  310. 
Sunburned  grain,  28. 


Sunburned  grass,   278. 
Superphosphate,  310. 
Sweet  clover,  177. 

establishing  of,  181. 

in  alfalfa,  180. 

use  of,  181. 
Sweetening  soil,  36. 
Swine  in  alfalfa,  240. 
Syrian  grass,  62. 

Tall  oatgrass,   60. 
Taylor,  P.  W.,  383. 
Temporary  pasture,  42. 
Ten  Eyck,  A.  M.,   371. 
Tethering,  337. 
Texas,  400. 
Texas  bluegrass,  124. 
Thatcher,  R.  W.,  406. 
Thistles,  330. 
Thorne,  Charles  E.,  394. 
Timothy,     amount    of    hay    from, 
285. 

effect  of  early  cutting,  28. 

for  feeding,  23,   164. 

fertilization  of,   303. 

how  close  to  cut,  40. 

injured  by  mice,  40. 

in  the  North,  16. 

life  of,  41. 

manner  of  growth,  29. 

method  of  sowing,   31. 

mixtures,   32,  283. 

sown  alone,   33. 

time  of  cutting,   25. 

with  alfalfa,   30. 

with  clover,  20. 

with  clover  and  wheat,   159. 

worth  of,   73. 

Tobacco  fed  to  sheep,  341. 
Top-dressing,    effect   of,    359. 

with  manure,  34. 
Tree  field  experiments,  310. 
Trichqlaena  rosea,   366. 
Trifolium.      (See   white   clover.) 

hybridum,    166. 

incarnatum,  see  Crimson  clover. 

Utah,  404. 

Vegetable  matter  in  soil,  274. 
Velvet  beans,   202,  360. 
Vetches,  for  forage,  69. 

needing  inoculation,   140. 
Vicia  villosa,   183. 
Vigna  sinensis,  195. 

Warren,  G.  F.,  385. 

Washington,  406. 

Water  meadows,  278. 

Waters,  H.  J.,  379. 

Weeds,  effect  of  fertilization,  36. 

effect  on  Bermuda  grass,  116. 
Wheat,    clover    and    timothy,    32, 
159. 

hay,   61. 

in   timothy,    40. 

stems  from  seed,  15. 

with  .peas,   194. 


418  INDEX 


Wheeler,  H.  J.,  396.  Wiregrass,  358. 

White,  Paul  J.,  385.  Wisconsin,   407. 

White  clover,  150.  Withycombe,  James,  395. 

with  Bermuda  grass,  116.  Wyoming,  400. 
Wiancko,  A.  T.,  370. 

Wild  oatgrass,  60.  Yarrow,  330. 

Winter  wheat,  for  forage,  69.  Yellow  trefoil,  182. 


Alfalfa  in  America 

By  Joseph  E.  Wing 


In  this  illustrated  work  of  480  pages  the 
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Sheep  Farming 

Joseph  E,  Wing 


in  America        By 


Success  in  raising  sheep  comes  to  those 
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